Acquired lipodystrophy

Acquired generalized lipodystrophy

• 1  Garg A. Clinical review: lipodystrophies: genetic and acquired body fat disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:3313–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 2  Ziegler L. Lipodystrophies: report of seven cases. Brain 1928; 51:147–67. Cross Ref link
• 3  Lawrence RD. Lipodystrophy and hepatomegaly, with diabetes, lipaemia, and other metabolic disturbances; a case throwing new light on the action of insulin. Lancet 1946;1(6403):724 passim. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 4  Iglesias P, Alvarez Fidalgo P, Codoceo R, Diez JJ. Lipoatrophic diabetes in an elderly woman: clinical course and serum adipocytokine concentrations. Endocr J 2004;51:279–86. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 5  Llamas‐Velasco M, Dauden E, Martinez‐Penas G, Garcia‐Diez A. Late‐onset acquired generalized lipodystrophy with muscle involvement. Actas Dermosifiliogr 2011;103:729–32. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 6  Wachslicht‐Rodbard H, Muggeo M, Kahn CR, Saviolakis GA, Harrison LC, Flier JS. Heterogeneity of the insulin‐receptor interaction in lipoatropic diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981;52:416–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 7  Franklin B, Ginsberg H, Haque WU, et al. Very low‐density lipoprotein metabolism in an unusual case of lipoatrophic diabetes. Metabolism 1984; 33:814–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 8  Stacpoole PW, Alig J, Kilgore LL, et al. Lipodystrophic diabetes mellitus. Investigations of lipoprotein metabolism and the effects of omega‐3 fatty acid administration in two patients. Metabolism 1988; 37:944–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 9  Klein S, Jahoor F, Wolfe RR, Stuart CA. Generalized lipodystrophy: in vivo evidence for hypermetabolism and insulin‐resistant lipid, glucose, and amino acid kinetics. Metabolism 1992;41:893–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 10  Misra A, Garg A. Clinical features and metabolic derangements in acquired ­generalized lipodystrophy: case reports and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2003;82:129–46. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 11  Chao PJ, Tsai JC, Chang DM, Shin SJ, Lee YJ. A case of acquired generalized lipodystrophy with cerebellar degeneration and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Rev Diabet Stud 2004;1:193–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 12  Kikkawa R, Hoshi M, Shigeta Y, Izumi K. Lack of ketosis in lipoatrophic diabetes. Diabetes 1972;21:827–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 13  Lupsa BC, Sachdev V, Lungu AO, Rosing DR, Gorden P. Cardiomyopathy in congenital and acquired generalized lipodystrophy: a clinical assessment. Medicine (Baltimore) 2010; 89:245–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 14  Dolberg BK, Lenhard MJ. Successful outcome of pregnancy in a patient with generalized lipoatrophic diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract 2000;6:34–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 15  Huemer C, Kitson H, Malleson PN, et al. Lipodystrophy in patients with juvenile dermatomyositis – evaluation of clinical and metabolic abnormalities. J Rheumatol 2001;28:610–15. Pubmed link
• 16  Wilson DE, Chan IF, Stevenson KB, Horton SC, Schipke C. Eucaloric substitution of medium chain triglycerides for dietary long chain fatty acids in acquired total lipodystrophy: effects on hyperlipoproteinemia and endogenous insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983;57:517–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 17  Goebel FD, Dorfler H, Goebel HH, Zollner N. Muscle capillary basement membrane thickness in lipoatrophic diabetes. Res Exp Med (Berl) 1977;171:271–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 18  Coelho PC, Jordao A, Andre O, de Queiroz MV, Eurico‐Lisboa P. Rheumatological manifestations of lipoatrophic diabetes. Clin Rheumatol 1995;14:229–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 19  Griebel M, Mallory SB. Generalized weight loss in a child. Generalized lipodystrophy. Arch Dermatol 1988;124:573‐6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 20  Seip M, Trygstad O. Generalized lipodystrophy, congenital and acquired (lipoatrophy). Acta Paediatr Suppl 1996;413:2–28. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 21  Davis J, Tizard J. Generalized lipodystrophy, infectious mononucleosis, mild infantile hemiplegia. Proc R Soc Med 1954;47:128–9. Pubmed link
• 22  Garg A. Lipodystrophies. Am J Med. 2000;108:143–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 23  Savage DB, Semple RK, Clatworthy MR, et al. Complement abnormalities in acquired lipodystrophy revisited. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:10–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 24  Eren E, Ozkan TB, Cakir ED, Saglam H, Tarim O. Acquired generalized lipodystrophy associated with autoimmune hepatitis and low serum C4 level. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 2010;2:39–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 25  Hubler A, Abendroth K, Keiner T, et al. Dysregulation of insulin‐like growth factors in a case of generalized acquired lipoatrophic diabetes mellitus (Lawrence syndrome) connected with autoantibodies against adipocyte membranes. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1998;106:79–84. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 26  Lewis GF, Carpentier A, Adeli K, Giacca A. Disordered fat storage and mobilization in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Endocr Rev 2002;23:201–29. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 27  McGarry JD. Banting lecture 2001: dysregulation of fatty acid metabolism in the etiology of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2002;51:7–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 28  Ravussin E, Smith SR. Increased fat intake, impaired fat oxidation, and failure of fat cell proliferation result in ectopic fat storage, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002;967:363–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 29  Bays H, Mandarino L, DeFronzo RA. Role of the adipocyte, free fatty acids, and ectopic fat in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus: peroxisomal proliferator‐activated receptor agonists provide a rational therapeutic approach. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:463–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 30  Pardini VC, Victoria IM, Rocha SM, et al. Leptin levels, beta‐cell function, and insulin sensitivity in families with congenital and acquired generalized lipoatropic diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:503–8. Pubmed link
• 31  Reitman ML, Arioglu E, Gavrilova O, Taylor SI. Lipoatrophy revisited. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2000;11:410–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 32  Weyer C, Funahashi T, Tanaka S, et al. Hypoadiponectinemia in obesity and type 2 diabetes: close association with insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1930–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 33  Haque WA, Shimomura I, Matsuzawa Y, Garg A. Serum adiponectin and leptin levels in patients with lipodystrophies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:2395. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 34  Taylor WB, Honeycutt WM. Progressive lipodystrophy and lipoatrophic diabetes. Review of the literature and case reports. Arch Dermatol 1961;84:31–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 35  Smith JP, Burns TW, Leigh CC. Diabetes mellitus and lipoatrophy. South Med J 1990;83:573–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 36  Sasaki T, Ono H, Nakajima H, Sugimoto J. Lipoatrophic diabetes. J Dermatol 1992;19:246–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 37  Senior B, Gellis SS. The syndromes of total lipodystrophy and of partial lipodystrophy. Pediatrics 1964;33:593–612. Pubmed link
• 38  Ipp MM, Howard NJ, Tervo RC, Gelfand EW. Sicca syndrome and total lipodystrophy: a case in a fifteen‐year‐old female patient. Ann Intern Med 1976;85:443–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 39  Wesenberg RL, Gwinn JL, Barnes GR, Jr. The roentgenographic findings in total lipodystrophy. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1968;103:154–64. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 40  Golden MP, Charles MA, Arquilla ER, et al. Insulin resistance in total lipodystrophy: evidence for a pre‐receptor defect in insulin action. Metabolism 1985;34:330–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 41  Vantyghem MC, Vigouroux C, Magre J, et al. Late‐onset lipoatrophic diabetes. Phenotypic and genotypic familial studies and effect of treatment with metformin and lispro insulin analog. Diabetes Care 1999;22:1374–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 42  Simha V, Garg A. Body fat distribution and metabolic derangements in patients with familial partial lipodystrophy associated with mandibuloacral dysplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:776–85. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 43  Edge J, Dunger DB, Dillon MJ. Weber‐Christian panniculitis and chronic active hepatitis. Eur J Pediatr 1986;145:227–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 44  Billings JK, Milgraum SS, Gupta AK, Headington JT, Rasmussen JE. Lipoatrophic panniculitis: a possible autoimmune inflammatory disease of fat. Report of three cases. Arch Dermatol 1987;123:1662–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 45  Catalano PM, Capeless EL, Simmons GM, Robbins DC, Horton ES. Successful pregnancy outcome in association with lipoatrophic diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 1990;76(5 Pt 2):978–9. Pubmed link
• 46  Garg A, Fleckenstein JL, Peshock RM, Grundy SM. Peculiar distribution of adipose tissue in patients with congenital generalized lipodystrophy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;75:358–61. Pubmed link
• 47  Lutz BS, Toussaint S, Wei FC. Bilateral facial lipoatrophy secondary to connective tissue panniculitis treated with two microsurgically transplanted latissimus dorsi muscles. Ann Plast Surg 1998;40:302–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 48  Van der Wal KG, Mulder JW. Facial contour reconstruction in partial lipodystrophy using two temporalis muscle flaps. A case report. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1998;27:14–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 49  Oral EA, Simha V, Ruiz E, et al. Leptin‐replacement therapy for lipodystrophy. N Engl J Med 2002;346:570–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 50  Petersen KF, Oral EA, Dufour S, et al. Leptin reverses insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in patients with severe lipodystrophy. J Clin Invest 2002;109:1345–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Acquired partial lipodystrophy

• 51  Garg A. Lipodystrophies. Am J Med 2000;108:143–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 52  Garg A. Clinical review: lipodystrophies: genetic and acquired body fat disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:3313–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 53  Mitchell S. Singular case of absence of adipose matter in the upper half of the body. Am J Med Sci 1885;90:105–6. Cross Ref link
• 54  Barraquer L. Histoire clinique d'un cas d'atrophie du tissu celluloadipeux. Neurolog Zentralblatt 1907;26:1072.
• 55  Simons A. Eine seltnen Trophoneurose: “Lipodystrophia progressiva”. Z Ges Neurol Psychiat 1911;5:29–38. Cross Ref link
• 56  Poley JR, Stickler GB. Progressive lipodystrophy. a clinical study of 50 patients. Am J Dis Child 1963;106:356–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 57  Ipp MM, Minta JO, Gelfand EW. Disorders of the complement system in lipodystrophy. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1977;7:281–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 58  Jasin HE. Systemic lupus erythematosus, partial lipodystrophy and hypocomplementemia. J Rheumatol 1979;6:43–50. Pubmed link
• 59  McLean RH, Hoefnagel D. Partial lipodystrophy and familial C3 deficiency. Hum Hered 1980;30:149–54. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 60  Torrelo A, Espana A, Boixeda P, Ledo A. Partial lipodystrophy and dermatomyositis. Arch Dermatol 1991;127:1846–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 61  Senior B, Gellis SS. The syndromes of total lipodystrophy and of partial lipodystrophy. Pediatrics 1964;33:593–612. Pubmed link
• 62  O'Mahony D, O'Mahony S, Whelton MJ, McKiernan J. Partial lipodystrophy in coeliac disease. Gut 1990;31:717–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 63  Smak Gregoor PJ, van Bommel EF, Ketterings C, van Saase JL, Kramer P. Progressive lipodystrophy, a diagnosis at a glance. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998;13:507–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 64  Spranger S, Spranger M, Tasman AJ, Reith W, Voigtlander T, Voigtlander V. Barraquer‐Simons syndrome (with sensorineural deafness): a contribution to the differential diagnosis of lipodystrophy syndromes. Am J Med Genet 1997;71:397–400. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 65  Caramaschi P, Biasi D, Lestani M, Chilosi M. A case of acquired partial lipodystrophy associated with POEMS syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003;42:488–90. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 66  Rooney DP, Ryan MF. Diabetes with partial lipodystrophy following sclerodermatous chronic graft vs host disease. Diabet Med 2006;23:436–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 67  Winhoven SM, Hafejee A, Coulson IH. An unusual case of an acquired acral partial lipodystrophy (Barraquer‐Simons syndrome) in a patient with extrinsic allergic alveolitis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006;31:594–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 68  Williams DG, Bartlett A, Duffus P. Identification of nephritic factor as an immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Immunol 1978;33:425–9. Pubmed link
• 69  Mathieson PW, Peters K. Are nephritic factors nephritogenic? Am J Kidney Dis 1994;24:964–66. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 70  Misra A, Peethambaram A, Garg A. Clinical features and metabolic and autoimmune derangements in acquired partial lipodystrophy: report of 35 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2004;83:18–34. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 71  Sissons JG, West RJ, Fallows J, et al. The complement abnormalities of lipodystrophy. N Engl J Med 1976 26;294:461–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 72  Mathieson PW, Wurzner R, Oliveria DB, Lachmann PJ, Peters DK. Complement‐mediated adipocyte lysis by nephritic factor sera. J Exp Med 1993;177:1827–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 73  Mathieson PW, Peters DK. Lipodystrophy in MCGN type II: the clue to links between the adipocyte and the complement system. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997;12:1804–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 74  Peake PW, O'Grady S, Pussell BA, Charlesworth JA. Detection and quantification of the control proteins of the alternative pathway of complement in 3T3‐L1 adipocytes. Eur J Clin Invest 1997;27:922–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 75  Oswiecimska J, Ziora K, Geisler G, Dyduch A. Acquired partial lipodystrophy in an 11‐year‐old girl. Pediatr Int 2008;50(5):714–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 76  Hotamisligil GS, Shargill NS, Spiegelman BM. Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor‐alpha: direct role in obesity‐linked insulin resistance. Science 1993;259:87–91. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 77  Van Hall G, Steensberg A, Sacchetti M, et al. Interleukin‐6 stimulates lipolysis and fat oxidation in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:3005–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 78  Taylor WB, Honeycutt WM. Progressive lipodystrophy and lipoatrophic diabetes. Review of the literature and case reports. Arch Dermatol 1961;84:31–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 79  Hegele RA, Cao H, Liu DM, et al. Sequencing of the reannotated LMNB2 gene reveals novel mutations in patients with acquired partial lipodystrophy. Am J Hum Genet 2006;79:383–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 80  Baccjo VF, Maillet F, Berian L, et al. Neutralising antibodies against C3NeF in intravenous immunoglobulin. Lancet 1992;340:63–4.
• 81  Levy Y, George J, Yona E, et al. Partial lipodystrophy, mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis, and completment dysregulation. An autoimmune phenomenon. Immunol Res 1998:18:55–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

HIV‐associated lipodystrophy

• 82  Hengel RL, Watts NB, Lennox JL. Benign symmetric lipomatosis associated with protease inhibitors. Lancet 1997;350:1596. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 83  Garg A. Clinical review: lipodystrophies: genetic and acquired body fat disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:3313–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 84  Domingo P, Estrada V, Lopez‐Aldeguer J, Villaroya F, Martinez E. Fat redistribution syndromes associated with HIV‐1 infection and combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Rev 2012;14:112–23. Pubmed link
• 85  Carr A, Emery S, Law M, Puls R, Lundgren JD, Powderly WG. An objective case definition of lipodystrophy in HIV‐infected adults: a case‐control study. Lancet 2003;361:726–35. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 86  Law M, Puls R, Cheng AK, Cooper DA, Carr A. Evaluation of the HIV lipodystrophy case definition in a placebo‐controlled, 144‐week study in antiretroviral‐naive adults. Antivir Ther 2006;11:179–86. Pubmed link
• 87  Chen D, Misra A, Garg A. Clinical review 153: lipodystrophy in human immunodeficiency virus‐infected patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:4845–56. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 88  Martinez E, Mocroft A, Garcia‐Viejo MA, et al. Risk of lipodystrophy in HIV‐1‐infected patients treated with protease inhibitors: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2001;357:592–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 89  Narciso P, Tozzi V, D'Offizi G, et al. Metabolic and morphologic disorders in patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy since primary HIV infection. Ann NY Acad Sci 2001;946:214–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 90  Arribas JR, Pozniak AL, Gallant JE, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, emtricitabine, and efavirenz compared with zidovudine/lamivudine and efavirenz in treatment‐naive patients: 144‐week analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008;47:74–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 91  Babl FE, Regan AM, Pelton SI. Abnormal body‐fat distribution in HIV‐1‐infected children on antiretrovirals. Lancet 1999;353:1243–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 92  Jaquet D, Levine M, Ortega‐Rodriguez E, et al. Clinical and metabolic presentation of the lipodystrophic syndrome in HIV‐infected children. AIDS 2000;14:2123–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 93  Arpadi SM, Cuff PA, Horlick M, Wang J, Kotler DP. Lipodystrophy in HIV‐infected children is associated with high viral load and low CD4+‐lymphocyte count and CD4+‐lymphocyte percentage at baseline and use of protease inhibitors and stavudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001;27:30–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 94  Brambilla P, Bricalli D, Sala N, et al. Highly active antiretroviral‐treated HIV‐infected children show fat distribution changes even in absence of lipodystrophy. AIDS 2001;15:2415–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 95  McComsey G, Rightmire A, Wirtz V, Yang R, Mathew M, McGrath D. Changes in body composition with ritonavir‐boosted and unboosted atazanavir treatment in combination with lamivudine and stavudine: a 96‐week randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1323–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 96  Grinspoon S, Carr A. Cardiovascular risk and body‐fat abnormalities in HIV‐infected adults. N Engl J Med 2005;352:48–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 97  Villarroya F, Domingo P, Giralt M. Lipodystrophy in HIV 1‐infected patients: lessons for obesity research. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007;31:1763–76. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 98  Murata H, Hruz PW, Mueckler M. The mechanism of insulin resistance caused by HIV protease inhibitor therapy. J Biol Chem 2000;275:20251–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 99  Carr A, Miller J, Law M, Cooper DA. A syndrome of lipoatrophy, lactic acidaemia and liver dysfunction associated with HIV nucleoside analogue therapy: contribution to protease inhibitor‐related lipodystrophy syndrome. AIDS 2000;14:F25–32. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 100  Lee H, Hanes J, Johnson KA. Toxicity of nucleoside analogues used to treat AIDS and the selectivity of the mitochondrial DNA polymerase. Biochemistry 2003;42(50):14711–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 101  Caron‐Debarle M, Lagathu C, Boccara F, Vigouroux C, Capeau J. HIV‐associated lipodystrophy: from fat injury to premature aging. Trends Mol Med 2010;16:218–29. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 102  Domingo P, Matias‐Guiu X, Pujol RM, et al. Subcutaneous adipocyte apoptosis in HIV‐1 protease inhibitor‐associated lipodystrophy. AIDS 1999;13:2261–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 103  Lafontan M, Berlan M. Do regional differences in adipocyte biology provide new pathophysiological insights? Trends Pharmacol Sci 2003;24:276–83. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 104  Heath KV, Hogg RS, Singer J, Chan KJ, O'Shaughnessy MV, Montaner JS. Antiretroviral treatment patterns and incident HIV‐associated morphologic and lipid abnormalities in a population‐based chort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;30:440–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 105  Lichtenstein KA, Delaney KM, Armon C, et al. Incidence of and risk factors for lipoatrophy (abnormal fat loss) in ambulatory HIV‐1‐infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;32:48–56. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 106  Podzamczer D, Ferrer E, Sanchez P, et al. Less lipoatrophy and better lipid profile with abacavir as compared to stavudine: 96‐week results of a randomized study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007;44:139–47. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 107  Haubrich RH, Riddler SA, DiRienzo AG, et al. Metabolic outcomes in a randomized trial of nucleoside, nonnucleoside and protease inhibitor‐sparing regimens for initial HIV treatment. AIDS 2009;23:1109–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 108  Funk E, Brissett AE, Friedman CD, Bressler FJ. HIV‐associated facial lipoatrophy: establishment of a validated grading scale. Laryngoscope 2007;117:1349–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 109  Hansen BR, Haugaard SB, Iversen J, Nielsen JO, Andersen O. Impact of switching antiretroviral therapy on lipodystrophy and other metabolic complications: a review. Scand J Infect Dis 2004;36:244–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 110  Leyes P, Martinez E, Forga Mde T. Use of diet, nutritional supplements and exercise in HIV‐infected patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapies: a systematic review. Antivir Ther 2008;13:149–59. Pubmed link
• 111  Hadigan C. Dietary habits and their association with metabolic abnormalities in human immunodeficiency virus‐related lipodystrophy. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37(Suppl. 2):S101–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 112  Malita FM, Karelis AD, Toma E, Rabasa‐Lhoret R. Effects of different types of exercise on body composition and fat distribution in HIV‐infected patients: a brief review. Can J Appl Physiol 2005;30:233–45. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 113  Yki‐Jarvinen H. Thiazolidinediones. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1106–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 114  Calmy A, Bloch M, Wand H, et al. No significant effect of uridine or pravastatin treatment for HIV lipoatrophy in men who have ceased thymidine analogue nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy: a randomized trial. HIV Med 2010;11:493–501. Pubmed link
• 115  McComsey GA, Walker UA, Budhathoki CB, et al. Uridine supplementation in the treatment of HIV lipoatrophy: results of ACTG 5229. AIDS 2010;24:2507–15. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 116  Fontdevila J, Serra‐Renom JM, Raigosa M, et al. Assessing the long‐term viability of facial fat grafts: an objective measure using computed tomography. Aesthet Surg J 2008;28:380–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 117  Guaraldi G, Fontdevila J, Christensen LH, et al. Surgical correction of HIV‐associated facial lipoatrophy. AIDS 2011;25:1–12. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 118  Martinez E, Visnegarwala F, Grund B, et al. The effects of intermittent, CD4‐guided antiretroviral therapy on body composition and metabolic parameters. AIDS 2010;24:353–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 119  Moyle G, Moutschen M, Martinez E, et al. Epidemiology, assessment, and management of excess abdominal fat in persons with HIV infection. AIDS Rev 2010;12:3–14. Pubmed link
• 120  Snel YE, Brummer RJ, Doerga ME, et al. Adipose tissue assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in growth hormone‐deficient adults: the effect of growth hormone replacement and a comparison with control subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61:1290–4. Pubmed link
• 121  Rietschel P, Hadigan C, Corcoran C, et al. Assessment of growth hormone dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus‐related lipodystrophy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:504–10. Pubmed link
• 122  Kotler DP, Muurahainen N, Grunfeld C, et al. Effects of growth hormone on abnormal visceral adipose tissue accumulation and dyslipidemia in HIV‐infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;35:239–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 123  Grunfeld C, Thompson M, Brown SJ, et al. Recombinant human growth hormone to treat HIV‐associated adipose redistribution syndrome: 12 week induction and 24‐week maintenance therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007;45:286–97. Pubmed link
• 124  Falutz J, Allas S, Blot K, et al. Metabolic effects of a growth hormone‐releasing factor in patients with HIV. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2359–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 125  Johnson RM. Reduction mammoplasty in an HIV‐positive woman. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2005;19:353–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 126  Hultman CS, McPhail LE, Donaldson JH, Wohl DA. Surgical management of HIV‐associated lipodystrophy: role of ultrasonic‐assisted liposuction and suction‐assisted lipectomy in the treatment of lipohypertrophy. Ann Plast Surg 2007;58:255–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 127  Nelson L, Stewart KJ. Plastic surgical options for HIV‐associated lipodystrophy. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2008;61:359–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Localized lipoatrophy and/or lipodystrophy

Semicircular lipoatrophy

• 128  Gschwandtner WR, Munzberger H. [Lipoatrophia semicircularis. Linear and circular atrophy of the subcutaneous fat in the extremities.] Hautarzt 1974;25:222–7. Pubmed link
• 129  De Groot AC. Is lipoatrophia semicircularis induced by pressure? Br J Dermatol 1994;131:887–90. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 130  Herane MI, Urbina F, Sudy E. Lipoatrophia semicircularis: a compressive lipoatrophy consecutive to persistent mechanical pressure. J Dermatol 2007;34:390–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 131  Gomez‐Espejo C, Perez‐Bernal A, Camacho‐Martinez F. A new case of semicircular lipoatrophy associated with repeated external microtraumas and review of the literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2005;19:459–61. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 132  Nagore E, Sanchez‐Motilla JM, Rodriguez‐Serna M, Vilata JJ, Aliaga A. Lipoatrophia semicircularis – a traumatic panniculitis: report of seven cases and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;39:879–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 133  Reinoso‐Barbero L, Gonzalez‐Gomez MF, Belanger‐Quintana D, et al. Case‐­control study of semicircular lipoatrophy, a new occupational disease in office workers. J Occup Health 2013;55(3):149–57. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 134  Bloch PH, Runne U. [Lipoatrophia semicircularis in the male. Coincidence of arterial variations and micro‐traumas as a possible disease cause.] Hautarzt 1978;29:270–2. Pubmed link
• 135  Schnitzler L, Verret JL, Titon JP. [Lipoatrophia semi‐circularis of the thigh.] Ann Dermatol Venereol 1980;107:421–6. Pubmed link
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Localized lipoatrophy due to injected drugs

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Insulin‐induced localized lipoatrophy

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Localized lipoatrophy due to injected corticosteroid

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Centrifugal lipodystrophy

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• 203  Zachary CB, Wells RS. Centrifugal lipodystrophy. Br J Dermatol 1984;110:107–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 204  Franks A, Verbov JL. Unilateral localized idiopathic lipoatrophy. Clin Exp Dermatol 1993;18:468–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 206  Caputo R. Lipodystrophia centrifugalis sacralis infantilis. A 15‐year follow‐up observation. Acta Derm Venereol 1989;69:442–3. Pubmed link
• 207  Muller S, Beissert S, Metze D, Luger TA, Bonsmann G. Lipodystrophia centrifugalis abdominalis infantilis in a 4‐year‐old Caucasian girl: association with partial IgA deficiency and autoantibodies. Br J Dermatol 1999;140:1161–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 208  Llistosella E, Puig L, Perez F. Lipodystrophia centrifugalis abdominalis infantilis: a case report. Pediatr Dermatol 1997;14:216–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 210  Kagoura M, Toyoda M, Matsui C, Higaki S, Morohashi M. An ultrastructural study of lipodystrophia centrifugalis abdominalis infantilis, with special reference to fibrous long‐spacing collagen. Pediatr Dermatol 2001;18:13–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 212  Fukumoto D, Kubo Y, Saito M, Arase S. Centrifugal lipodystrophy of the scalp presenting with an arch‐form alopecia: a 10‐year follow‐up observation. J Dermatol 2009;36:499–503. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Fat hypertrophy

Insulin‐induced localized fat hypertrophy

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Subcutaneous lipomatosis

Benign symmetrical lipomatosis

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• 248  Vargas‐Diez E, Dauden E, Jones‐Caballero M, Garcia‐Diez A. Madelung's disease involving the tongue. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;42:511–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Dercum disease

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Infiltrating lipomatosis of the face

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Encephalocraniocutaneous lipomatosis

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Lipoedema

Lipoedema of the lower limbs

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