Introduction

  • 1  Piette WW. The differential diagnosis of purpura from a morphologic perspective. Adv Dermatol 1994;9:3–23.Pubmed link
  • 2  Marco R, Fortuna S, Rodeghiero F. Heterogeneity of terminology and clinical definitions in adult idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: a critical appraisal from a systematic review of the literature. Haematologica 2008;93:98–103.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 3  Bick R. Vascular thrombohemorrhagic disorders: hereditary and acquired. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2001;7:178–94.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 4  Thornsberry LA, LoSicco KI, English JC, 3rd. The skin and hypercoagulable states. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013;69(3):450–62.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 5  Jones A, Walling H. Retiform purpura in plaques: a morphological approach to diagnosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2007;32:596–602.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 6  Greer JP, Arber DA, Glader BE, et al., eds. Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology, 13th edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2013.
  • 7  Harmening DM, ed. Clinical Hematology and Fundamentals of Hemostasis, 5th edn. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company, 2008.
  • 8  Davis G, Butler DF, Greene J. Hemorrhagic subcutaneous nodules: an initial sign of hemophilia A. Pediatr Dermatol 2007;24:121–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 9  Maguire S, Mann M. Systematic reviews of bruising in relation to child abuse – what have we learnt: an overview of review updates. Evid Based Child Health 2013;8(2):255–63.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
  • 10  Cox NH, Paterson WD. Angioma serpiginosum: a simulator of purpura. Postgrad Med J 1991;67:1065–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

Purpura due to thrombocytopenia or platelet defects

    Thrombocytopenia

    • 11  Shenkman B, Einav Y. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and other thrombotic microangiopathic hemolytic anemias: diagnosis and classification. Autoimmun Rev 2014;13(4–5):584–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 12  Shah N, Sarode R. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura – what is new? J Clin Apher 2013;28(1):30–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 13  McCrae KR, Bussel JB, Mannucci PM, et al. Platelets: an update on diagnosis and management of thrombocytopenic disorders. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2001;2001:282–305.Cross Ref link
    • 14  Handin RI. Inherited platelet disorders. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2005;2005:396–402 .Cross Ref link
    • 15  Cines DB, Bussel JB, McMillan RB, Zehnder JL. Congenital and acquired thrombocytopenia. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2004;2004:390–406.Cross Ref link
    • 16  Hayward CPM. Diagnosis and management of mild bleeding disorders. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2005;2005:423–8.Cross Ref link
    • 17  Bussel JB, Kunicki TJ, Michelson AD. Platelets: new understanding of platelet glycoproteins and their role in disease. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2000;2000:222–40.Cross Ref link
    • 18  George JN, Shattil SJ. The clinical importance of acquired abnormalities of platelet function. N Engl J Med 1991;324:27–39.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 19  Hassan AA, Kroll MH. Acquired disorders of platelet function. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2005;2005:403–8.Cross Ref link

    Abnormalities of platelet function

    • 20  Handin RI. Inherited platelet disorders. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2005;2005:396–402.Cross Ref link
    • 21  Neunert CE, Journeycake JM. Congenital platelet disorders. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007;21:663–84.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 22  George JN, Shattil SJ. The clinical importance of acquired abnormalities of platelet function. N Engl J Med 1991;324:27–39.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 23  Hassan AA, Kroll MH. Acquired disorders of platelet function. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2005;2005:403–8.Cross Ref link
    • 24  Shen Y‐MP, Frenkel EP. Acquired platelet dysfunction. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007;21:647–61.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 25  Diz‐Küçükkaya R. Inherited platelet disorders including Glanzmann thrombasthenia and Bernard‐Soulier syndrome. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2013;2013:268–75.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

    Thrombocytosis

    • 26  Champion RH, Rook A. Idiopathic thrombocythemia: cutaneous manifestations. Arch Dermatol 1963;87:302–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 27  Amblard P, Lèques B, Seigneurin D, et al. Manifestations cutanées des thrombocytémies. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1977;104:115–20.
    • 28  Singh AK, Wetherley‐Mein G. Microvascular lesions in primary thrombocythaemia. Br J Haematol 1977;36:553–64.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 29  Preston FE, Emmanuel IG, Winfield DA, Malia RG. Essential thrombocythaemia and peripheral gangrene. BMJ 1974;ii:548–52.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
    • 30  Martin EA, Lavin PJ, Thompson AJ. Painful extremities and neurological disorder in essential thrombocythaemia. J R Soc Med 1984;77:372–4.Pubmed link
    • 31  Hachulla E, Rose C, Trillot N, et al. What vascular events suggest a myeloproliferative disorder? J Mal Vasc 2000;25:382–7.Pubmed link
    • 32  Kaszewski S, Czajkowski R, Protas‐Drozd, et al. Sweet's syndrome with idiopathic thrombocythemia. Postepy Dermatol Alergol 2014;XXXI(1):47–52.Cross Ref link
    • 33  Bray PF. Platelet hyperreactivity: predictive and intrinsic properties. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007;21:633–45.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

    Non‐thrombocytopenic vascular causes of purpura and syndromes of primary ecchymotic haemorrhage

      Raised intravascular pressure

      • 34  Bhushan M, Cox NH, Chalmers R. Eczema craquélé due to oedema. Br J Dermatol 2001;145:355–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 35  Trindade F, Requena L. Pseudo‐Kaposi's sarcoma because of suction‐socket lower limb prosthesis. J Cutan Pathol 2009;36(4):482–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 36  Martin L, MacHet L, Michalak S, et al. Acroangiodermatitis in a carrier of the thrombophilic 20210A mutation in the prothrombin gene. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:752.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 37  Kanitakis J, Narvaez D, Claudy A. Expression of the CD34 antigen distinguishes Kaposi's sarcoma from pseudo‐Kaposi's sarcoma (acroangiodermatitis). Br J Dermatol 1996;134:44–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 38  Ramelet AA. Exercise‐induced purpura. Dermatology (Basel) 2004;208:293–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 39  Leung AK, Grant RM, Truscott R. Exercise‐induced purpura. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1990;30:329–30.Pubmed link
      • 40  Kalivas J, Kalivas L. Solar purpura appearing in a patient with polymorphous light reaction. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 1995;11:31–2.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 41  Waters AJ, Sandhu C, Green CM, et al. Solar capillaritis as a cause of solar purpura. Clin Exp Dermatol 2009;34:e821–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

      Abnormal or decreased support of blood vessels

      • 42  Bick R. Vascular thrombohemorrhagic disorders: hereditary and acquired. Clin Appl Thrombosis Hemostasis 2001;7:178–94.Cross Ref link
      • 43  Feinstein RJ, Halprin KM, Penneys NS, et al. Senile purpura. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:229–32.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 44  Kaya G, Saurat JH. Dermatoporosis: a chronic cutaneous insufficiency/fragility syndrome. Clinicopathological features, mechanisms, prevention and potential treatments. Dermatology 2007;215(4):284–94.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 45  Capewell S, Reynolds S, Shuttleworth D, et al. Purpura and dermal thinning associated with high dose inhaled corticosteroids. BMJ 1990;300:1548–51.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 46  Parslew R, Verbov JL. Achenbach syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1995;132:319.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 47  Thies K, Beschorner U, Noory E, et al. Achenbach's syndrome revisited. Vasa 2012;41(5):366–70.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 48  Cole JA, Warthan MM, Hirano SA, et al. Scurvy in a 10‐year‐old boy. Pediatr Dermatol 2011;28(4):444–6Cross Ref linkPubmed link

      Physical and artefactual bleeding

      • 49  Metzker A, Merlob P. Suction purpura. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:822–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 50  Lao M, Weisshar A, Siegfried E. Talon noir. J Pediatr 2013;163(3):919.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 51  Hafner J, Haenseler E, Ossent P, et al. Benzidine stain for the histochemical detection of hemoglobin in splinter hemorrhage (subungual hematoma) and black heel. Am J Dermatopathol 1995;17:362–7.Pubmed link
      • 52  Juhlin L, Pontén B. Plantar pseudochromidrosis simulating malignant melanoma. Acta Dermatol Venereol 1967;47:255–8.
      • 53  Cho KH, Kim YE, Seo KI, Suh DH. Black heel with atypical melanocytic hyperplasia. Clin Exp Dermatol 1993;18:437–40.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 54  Saida T, Oguchi S, Ishihara Y. In vivo observations of magnified features of pigmented lesions on volar skin using video microscope. Arch Dermatol 1995;131:248–304.

      Dysproteinaemic and Waldenström hypergammaglobulinaemic purpura

      • 55  Waldenström J. Three new cases of purpura hyperglobulinaemica. A study of a long‐standing benign increase in serum globulin. Acta Med Scand 1952;266(Suppl.):931–46.
      • 56  Miyagawa S, Fukumoto T, Kanauchi M, et al. Hypergammaglobulinaemic purpura of Waldenström and Ro/SSA autoantibodies. Br J Dermatol 1996;134:919–23.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 57  Spicknall KE, Dubas LE, Mutasim DF. Cutaneous macroglobulinosis with monotypic plasma cells: a specific manifestation of Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia. J Cutan Pathol 2013;40(5):440–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 58  Eriksson P, Almroth G, Denneberg T, Lindstrom FD. IgG2 deficiency in primary Sjögren's syndrome and hypergammaglobulinaemic purpura. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1994;70:60–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 59  Senecal JL, Chartier S, Rothfield N. Hypergammaglobulinaemic purpura in systemic autoimmune rheumatic disease: predictive value of anti‐Ro (SSA) and anti‐La (SSB) antibodies and treatment with indomethacin and hydroxychloroquine. J Rheumatol 1995;22:868–75.Pubmed link
      • 60  Russell Jones R. The cutaneous manifestations of paraproteinaemia. I. Br J Dermatol 1980;103:335–45.Cross Ref link
      • 61  Russell Jones R. The cutaneous manifestations of paraproteinaemia. II. Br J Dermatol 1981;104:209–20.Cross Ref link
      • 62  Finder KA, McCullough ML, Dixon SL, et al. Hypergammaglobulinaemic purpura of Waldenstrom. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:669–76.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 63  Lewin JM, Hunt R, Fischer M, et al. Hypergammaglobuulinemic purpura of Waldenstrom. Dermatol Online J 2012;18(12):2.Pubmed link

      Pigmented purpuric dermatoses

      • 64  Tristani‐Firouzi P, Meadows KP, Vanderhooft S. Pigmented purpuric eruptions of childhood: a series of cases and review of literature. Pediatr Dermatol 2001;18:299–304.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 65  Ratnam KV, Su WPD, Peters MS. Purpura simplex (inflammatory purpura without vasculitis): a clinicopathologic study of 174 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:642–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 66  Jensen AL, Vanderhooft SL. Pigmented purpuras. In: Harper J, Oranje AP, Prose N, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Dermatology, 3rd edn. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2011:165.1–165.6.
      • 67  Baselga E, Drolet BA, Esterley NB. Purpura in infants and children. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;37:673–705.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 68  Sardana K, Sarkar R, Seghal VN. Pigmented purpuric dermatoses: an overview. Int J Dermatol 2004;43:482–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 69  Petruzzellis V, Vadala P, Inverardi D, et al. Idiopathic chronic pigmentary purpura. Findings in 22 cases and proposal of a new classification. VASA 1994;23:114–19.Pubmed link
      • 70  Ghersetich I, Lotti T, Bacci S, et al. Cell infiltrate in progressive pigmented purpura (Schamberg's disease): immunophenotype, adhesion receptors and intercellular relationships. Int J Dermatol 1995;34:846–50.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 71  Torrel A, Requena C, Mediero IG, Zambrano A. Schamberg's purpura in children: a review of 13 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003;48:31–3.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 72  Gibson LE. Schamberg purpura. Mayo Clin Proc 2004;79(8):1070.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
      • 73  Kocaturk E, Kavala M, Zindanci I, et al. Narrowband UVB treatment of pigmented purpuric lichenoid dermatitis (Gougerot‐Blum). Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 2009;25:55–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

      Disorders of cutaneous microvascular occlusion

        Platelet plugging: heparin necrosis

        • 74  Warkentin TE, Greinacher A. Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: recognition, treatment, and prevention: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126(Suppl. 3):S311–37.Cross Ref link
        • 75  Kelton JG, Warkentin TE. Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: a historical perspective. Blood 2008;112:2607–15.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 76  Schmugge M, Risch L, Huber AR, et al. Heparin induced thrombocytopenia‐associated thrombosis in paediatric intensive care patients. Paediatrics 2002;109:E10.Cross Ref link
        • 77  Warkentin TE, Sheppard JI, Sigouin CS, et al. Gender imbalance and risk factor interactions in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 2006;108(9):2937–41.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 78  Untch B, Ahmad S, Jeske W, et al. Prevalence, isotype, and functionality of antiheparin–platelet factor 4 antibodies in patients treated with heparin and clinically suspected for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. The pathogenic role of IgG. Thromb Res 2002;105:117–23.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 79  Arepally GM, Ortel TL. Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 2006;355:809–17.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 80  Tuneu A, Moreno A, de Moragas J. Cutaneous reactions secondary to heparin injections. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:1072–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 81  Tietge U, Schmidt H, Jackel E, et al. Low molecular weight heparin‐induced skin necrosis occurring distant from injection sites and without thrombocytopenia. J Intern Med 1998;243:313–15.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 82  Mc Kenzie SE, Sachais BS. Advances in the pathophysiology and treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Curr Opin Hematol 2014;21(5):380–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 83  Watson H, Davidson S, Keeling D. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: second edition. Br J Haematol 2012;159:528–40.Pubmed link
        • 84  Robson K, Piette W. The presentation and differential diagnosis of cutaneous vascular occlusion syndromes. Adv Dermatol 1999;15:153–82.

        Platelet plugging: thrombocytosis

        • 85  Harrison CN, Bareford D, Butt N, et al. Guideine for investigation and management of adults and children presenting with a thrombocytosis. Br J Haematol 2010;149(3):352–75.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 86  Myler B, Burton JH. Myeloproliferative disorders. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2014;32(3):597–612.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 87  Passominti F, Rumi E, Arcaini L, et al. Prognostic factors for thrombosis, myelofibrosis, and leukemia in essential thrombocythemia: a study of 605 patients. Haematologica 2008;93:1645–51.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 88  Alvarez‐Larran A, Ancochea A, Garcia M, et al. WHO‐histological criteria for myeloproliferative neoplasms: reproducibility, diagnostic accuracy and correlation with gene mutations and clinical outcomes. Br J Haematol 2014;166(6):911–19.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 89  Sanchez‐Luceros A, Meschengieser S, Woods A, et al. Acquired von Willebrand factor abnormalities in myeloproliferative disorders and other hematologic diseases: a retrospective analysis by a single institution. Haematologica 2002;87:264–70.Pubmed link
        • 90  Jensen M, Brown P, Thorsen S, Hasselbalch H. Frequent occurrence of anticardiolipin antibodies, factor V Leiden mutation, and perturbed endothelial function in chronic myeloproliferative disorders. Am J Hematol 2002;69:185–91.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 91  Carrobio A, Finazzi G, Antioneli E, et al. Thrombocytosis and leukocytosis interaction in vascular complications of essential thrombocythemia. Blood 2008;112:3134–7.
        • 92  Itin P, Winkelmann R. Cutaneous manifestations in patients with essential thrombocythemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;24:59–63.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 93  Stone M, Robson K, Piette W. Erythematous plaques due to platelet plugging: a clue to underlying myeloproliferative disorder. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:355–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 94  Michiels J, ten Kate F. Erythromelalgia in thrombocythemia of various myeloproliferative disorders. Am J Hematol 1992;39:131–6.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 95  Hernandez‐Boluda JC, Gomez M. Target hematologic values in the management of essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera. Eur J Haematol 2014;26(3):428–42.
        • 96  Emadi A, Spivak JL. Anagrelide: 20 years later. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2009;9:37–50.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 97  Austin SK, Lambert JR. The JAK2 617F mutation and thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2008;143:307–20.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 98  Falanga A, Barbui T, Rickles FR. Hypercoagulability and tissue factor gene upregulation in hematologic malignancies. Semin Thromb Hemost 2008;34:204–10.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Cryogelling/cryagglutination

        • 99  Brouet JC, Clauvel JP, Danon F, et al. Biologic and clinical significance of cryoglobulins: a report of 86 cases. Am J Med 1974;57:775–88.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 100  Ramos‐Casals M, Stone JH, Cid MC, et al. The cryoglobulinaemias. Lancet 2012;379(9813):348–60.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 101  Dammacco F, Sansonno D, Piccoli C, et al. The cryoglobulins: an overview. Eur J Clin Invest 2001;31:628–38.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 102  Rieu V, Cohen P, Andre M, et al. Characteristics and outcome of 49 patients with symptomatic cryoglobulinaemia. Rheumatology 2002;41:290–300.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 103  Beightler E, Diven D, Sanchez R, et al. Thrombotic vasculopathy associated with cryofibrinogenemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;24:342–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 104  Robson K. Piette W. The presentation and differential diagnosis of cutaneous vascular occlusion syndromes. Adv Dermatol 1999;15:153–82.
        • 105  Bonnet F, Pineau J, Taupin J, et al. Prevalence of cryoglobulinemia and serological markers of autoimmunity in human immunodeficiency virus infected individuals: a cross‐sectional study of 97 patients. J Rheumatol 2003;30:2005–10.Pubmed link
        • 106  Jantunen E, Soppi E, Neittaanmaki H, et al. Essential cryofibrinogenaemia, leukocytoclastic vasculitis and chronic purpura. J Intern Med 1993;234:331–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 107  Blain H, Cacoub P, Musset L, et al. Cryofibrinogenaemia: a study of 49 patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2000;120:253–60.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 108  Lauchli S, Widmer L, Lautenschlager S. Cold agglutinin disease: the importance of cutaneous signs. Dermatology 2001;202:356–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 109  Cohen SJ, Pittelkow MR, Su WPD. Cutaneous manifestations of cryoglobulinemia: clinical and histopathologic study of seventy‐two patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:21–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 110  Speight E, Lawrence C. Reticulate purpura, cryoglobulinaemia and livedo reticularis. Br J Dermatol 1993;129:319–23.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 111  Williamson A, Cone L, Huard G. Spontaneous necrosis of the skin associated with cryofibrinogenemia, cryoglobulinemia, and homocystinuria. Ann Vasc Surg 1996;10:365–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 112  Davis M, Su W. Cryoglobulinemia: recent findings in cutaneous and extracutaneous manifestations. Int J Dermatol 1996;35:240–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 113  Michaud M, Pourrat J. Cryofibrinogenemia. J Clin Rheumatol 2013;19(3):142–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 114  Stone MS, Piette WW, Davey WP. Cutaneous necrosis at sites of transfusion: cold agglutinin disease [Letter]. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:356–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 115  Della Rossa A, Tavoni A, Bombardieri S. Hyperviscosity syndrome in cryoglobulinemia: clinical aspects and therapeutic considerations. Semin Thromb Hemost 2003;29(5):473–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 116  Falanga V, Kirsner R, Eaglstein W, et al. Stanozolol in treatment of leg ulcers due to cryofibrinogenaemia. Lancet 1991;338:347–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Emboli

          Cholesterol embolus

          • 117  Fukumoto Y, Tsutsui H, Tsuchihashi M, et al. The incidence and risk factors of cholesterol embolization syndrome, a complication of cardiac catheterization: a prospective study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:211–16.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 118  Bashore T, Gehrig T. Cholesterol emboli after invasive cardiac procedures. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;42:217–18.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 119  Chandrashekariah R, Fresko O, Lynfield Y. Cholesterol embolism: a case report and review of the literature. Cutis 2001;68:263–7.Pubmed link
          • 120  Pennington M, Yeager J, Skelton H, Smith K. Cholesterol embolization syndrome: cutaneous histopathological features and the variable onset of symptoms in patients with different risk factors. Br J Dermatol 2002;146:511–17.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 121  Kang K, Botella R, White C, Jr. Subtle clues to the diagnosis of cholesterol embolism. Am J Dermatopathol 1996;18:380–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 122  Saric M, Kronzon I. Cholesterol embolization syndrome. Curr Opin Cardiol 2011;26(6):472–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 123  Lawson J. Cholesterol crystal embolization: more common than we thought? Am J Gastroenterol 2001;96:3230–2.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 124  Elinav E, Chajek‐Shaul T, Stern M. Improvement in cholesterol emboli syndrome after iloprost therapy. BMJ 2002;324:268–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 125  Quinones A, Saric M. The cholesterol emboli syndrome in artherosclerosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2013;15(4):315.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Oxalate embolus, cardiac embolus and other emboli

          • 126  Akhtar S. Fat embolism. Anesthesiol Clin 2009;27(3):533–50.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 127  Blackmon JA, Jeffy BG, Malone JC, et al. Oxalosis involving the skin: case report and literature review. Arch Dermatol 2011;147(11):1302–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 128  Ohtake N, Uchiyama H, Furue M, Tamaki K. Secondary cutaneous oxalosis: cutaneous deposition of calcium oxalate dihydrate after long‐term hemodialysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;31:368–72.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 129  Greeson D, Wright J, Zanolli M. Cutaneous findings associated with cardiac myxomas. Cutis 1998;62:275–80.Pubmed link
          • 130  Young R, Zalneraitis E. Marantic endocarditis in children and young adults: clinical and pathological findings. Stroke 1981;12:635–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 131  Ommen S, Seward J, Tajik A. Clinical and echocardiographic features of hypereosinophilic syndromes. Am J Cardiol 2000;86:110–13.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 132  Weller P, Bubley G. The idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome. Blood 1994;83:2759–79.Pubmed link
          • 133  Hasegawa H, Ozawa T, Tada N, et al. Multiple myeloma‐associated systemic vasculopathy due to crystalglobulin or polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:330–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 134  Ball N, Wickert W, Marx L, et al. Crystalglobulinemia syndrome: a manifestation of multiple myeloma. Cancer 1993;71:1231–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Systemic coagulopathies: protein C/protein S‐related disease

          • 135  Marlar RA, Montgomery RR, Broekmans AW. Diagnosis and treatment of homozygous protein C deficiency. Report of the Working Party on Homozygous Protein C Deficiency of the Subcommittee on Protein C and Protein S, International Committee on Thrombosis and Haemostasis. J Pediatr 1989;114:528–34.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 136  Levin M, Eley B, Louis J, et al. Postinfectious purpura fulminans caused by an autoantibody directed against protein S. J Pediatr 1995;127:355–63.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 137  Manco‐Johnson M, Nuss R, Key N, et al. Lupus anticoagulant and protein S deficiency in children with postvaricella purpura fulminans or thrombosis. J Pediatr 1996;128:319–23.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 138  Koeleman BP, van Rumpt D, Hamulyák K, et al. Factor V Leiden: an additional risk factor for thrombosis in protein S deficient families? Thromb Haemost 1995;74:580–3.Pubmed link
          • 139  Simioni P, Sanson B, Prandoni P, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in families with inherited thrombophilia. Thromb Haemost 1999;81:198–202.Pubmed link
          • 140  Kakagia DD, Papanas N, Karadimas E, et al. Warfarin‐induced skin necrosis. Ann Dermatol 2014;26(1):96–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 141  Hjort PF, Rapaport SI, Jorgensen I. Purpura fulminans: report of a case successfully treated with heparin and hydrocortisone. Review of 50 cases from the literature. Scand J Haematol 1964;1:169.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 142  Ezer U, Misirlioglu E, Colba V, et al. Neonatal purpura fulminans due to homozygous protein C deficiency. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2001;18:453–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 143  Comp P, Elrod J, Karzenski S. Warfarin‐induced skin necrosis. Semin Thromb Hemost 1990;16:293–8.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 144  Griffin J. Anticoagulants and skin necrosis. Adverse Drug React Toxicol Rev 1994;13:157–67.Pubmed link
          • 145  Robson K, Piette W. The presentation and differential diagnosis of cutaneous vascular occlusion syndromes. Adv Dermatol 1999;15:153–82.
          • 146  Piette W, Shasby DM, Kealey P, Olson J. Retiform purpura is a sign of severe acquired protein C deficiency and risk of progression to purpura fulminans in sepsis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Clin Res 1993;41:253A.
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          Systemic coagulopathies: antiphospholipid antibody/lupus anticoagulant syndrome

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          Vascular coagulopathies

          • 166  Sneddon IB. Cerebro‐vascular lesions and livedo reticularis. Br J Dermatol 1965;77:180–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          Livedoid vasculopathy/atrophie blanche

          • 181  Chang D, Patel RM. Livedoid vasculopathy. Cutis 2012;90(4):179.Pubmed link
          • 182  Acland K, Darvay A, Wakelin S, Russell‐Jones R. Livedoid vasculitis: a manifestation of the antiphospholipid syndrome? Br J Dermatol 1999;140:131–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 183  Calamia K, Balabanova M, Perniciaro C, Walsh J. Livedo (livedoid) vasculitis and the factor V Leiden mutation: additional evidence for abnormal coagulation. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:133–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 184  Anavekar NS, Kelly R. Heterozygous prothrombin gene mutation associated with livedoid vasculopathy. Australas J Dermatol 2007;48:120–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          • 190  Webster G, del Rosso JQ. Anti‐inflammatory activity of tetracyclines. Dermatol Clin 2007;25:133–5.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Malignant atrophic papulosis

          • 191  Degos R. Malignant atrophic papulosis. Br J Dermatol 1979;100:21–36.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          • 196  Caux F, Aractingi S, Scrobohaci ML, et al. Abnormal fibrinolysis in Degos disease. A study of 3 cases. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1994;121:537–42.
          • 197  Farrell AM, Moss J, Costello C, et al. Benign cutaneous Degos' disease. Br J Dermatol 1998;139:708–12.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 198  Black MM, Hudson PM. Atrophie blanche lesions closely resembling malignant atrophic papulosis (Degos' disease) in systemic lupus erythematosus. Br J Dermatol 1976;95:649–52.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 199  Durie BGM, Stroud JD, Kahn JA. Progressive systemic sclerosis with malignant atrophic papulosis. Arch Dermatol 1969;100:575–81.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 200  Demitsu T, Kakurai M, Marata S, et al. Degos' disease associated with rheumatoid arthritis. J Dermatol 1997;24:488–90.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 201  Tsao H, Busam K, Barnhill RL, Haynes HA. Lesions resembling malignant atrophic papulosis in a patient with dermatomyositis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;36:317–19.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 202  Tribble K, Archer ME, Jorizzo JL, et al. Malignant atrophic papulosis: absence of circulating immune complexes or vasculosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;15:365–9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 203  Harvell JD, Williford PL, White WL. Benign cutaneous Degos' disease: a case report with emphasis on histopathology as papules chronologically evolve. Am J Dermatopathol 2001;23:116–23.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          • 205  Carlson JA, Chen K‐R. Cutaneous vasculitis update: neutrophilic muscular vessel and eosinophilic, granulomatous, and lymphocytic vasculitis syndromes. Am J Dermatopathol 2007;29:32–43.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          • 207  Katz SK, Mudd LJ, Roenigk HH, Jr. Malignant atrophic papulosis (Degos' disease) involving three generations of a family. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;37:480–4.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 208  Thomson KF, Highet AS. Penile ulceration in fatal malignant atrophic papulosis (Degos' disease). Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1320–2.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 209  Thrash B, Patel M, Shah KR, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of gastrointestinal disease: part II. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013;68(2):211.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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          • 211  Bettley FR. A fatal cutaneo‐intestinal syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1960;72:423–6.Cross Ref link
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          • 214  Kanekura T, Uchino Y, Kanzaki T. A case of malignant atrophic papulosis successfully treated with nicotine patches. Br J Dermatol 2003;149:660–2.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Calcific uraemic arteriolopathy

          • 215  Weenig RH, Sewell LD, Davis MPD, et al. Calciphylaxis: natural history, risk factor analysis, and outcome. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007;56:569–79.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 216  Hayashi M. Calciphylaxis: diagnosis and clinical features. Clin Exp Nephrol 2013;17(4):498–503.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 217  Au S, Crawford R. Three‐dimensional analysis of a calciphylaxis plaque: clues to pathogenesis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:53–7.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 218  Kalajian AH, Malhotra PS, Callen JP, Parker LP. Calciphylaxis with normal renal and parathyroid function: not as rare as previously believed. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:451–8.Pubmed link
          • 219  Rifkin BS, Perazella MA. Calcific uremic arteriolopathy (calciphylaxis). Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81:9.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 220  Baker BL, Fitzgibbons CA, Buescher LS. Calciphylaxis responding to sodium thiosulphate therapy. Arch Dermatol 2007;143:269–70.Pubmed link
          • 221  Robinson MR, Augustine JJ, Korman NJ. Cinacalcet for the treatment of calciphylaxis. Arch Dermatol 2007;143:152–4.Pubmed link
          • 222  Ong S, Coulson IH. Diagnosis and treatment of calciphylaxis. Skinmed 2012;10(3):166–70.Pubmed link