Introduction

  • 1  Lynch PJ, Moyal‐Barracco M, Scurry J, Stockdale C. 2011 ISSVD terminology and classification of vulvar dermatological disorders; an approach to clinical diagnosis. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2012;16:339–44. Cross Ref link
  • 2  Bauer A, Greif C, Vollandt R, et al. Vulvar disease need an interdisciplinary approach. Dermatology 1999;199:223–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 3  Shenertz EF. Clinical pearl: symptomatic dermographism as a cause of genital pruritus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;31:1040–1. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Structure and function of the female genitalia

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  • 5  Neill SM, Lewis FM. Basics of vulval embryology, anatomy and physiology. In: Neill SM, Lewis FM, eds. Ridley's The Vulva, 3rd edn. London: Wiley Blackwell, 2009:13–33. Cross Ref link
  • 6  Klein VR, Willman SP, Carr BR. Familial posterior labial fusion. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:500–2. Pubmed link
  • 7  Redman JF, Ick KA, North PE. Perineal lipoma and an accessory labial fold in a female neonate. J Urol 2001;166:1450. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 8  Falk HC, Hyman AB. Congenital absence of clitoris: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1971;38:269–71. Pubmed link
  • 9  Gersell DJ, Fulling KH. Localized neurofibromatosis of the female genitourinary tract. Am J Surg Pathol 1989;13:873–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 10  Kauffmann‐Friedman K. Hemangioma of clitoris: confused with adreno‐genital syndrome – a case report. Plast Reconstr Surg 1978;62:452–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 11  Haddad HM, Jones WH. Clitoral enlargement simulating pseudohermaphroditism. Am J Dis Child 1960;99:282–7.
  • 12  Rocamora A, Santonja C, Vives R, et al. Sebaceous gland hyperplasia of the vulva: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1986;68(Suppl.):63–5.
  • 13  Moyal‐Barracco M, Leibowitch M, Orth G. Vestibular papillae of the vulva: lack of evidence for human papilloma virus aetiology. Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1594–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Congenital abnormalities

    Disorders of sexual development

    • 14  Hughes IA. Disorders of sexual development: new definition and classification. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;22:119–34. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Epidermolysis bullosa

    • 15  Steinkampf MP, Reilly SD, Ackerman AB. Vaginal agglutination and hematometra associated with epidermolysis bullosa. Obstet Gynecol 1987;69:519–21. Pubmed link
    • 16  Lataifeh I, Barahmeh S, Amarin Z, Jaradat I. Stage III squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva with groin nodes metastasis in a patient with epidermolysis bullosa. J Obstet Gynecol 2010;30:750–2. Cross Ref link

    Hailey–Hailey disease

    • 17  Ochiai T, Honda A, Morishima T, et al. Human papilloma‐virus types 16 and 39 in a vulval carcinoma occurring in a woman with Hailey–Hailey disease. Br J Dermatol 1999;140:509–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 18  Cockayne SE, Rassl DM, Thomas SE. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in Hailey–Hailey disease of the vulva. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:540–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 19  Rabeni EJ, Cunningham NM. Effective treatment of Hailey–Hailey disease with topical tacrolimus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:797–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 20  Von Felbert V, Hampl M, Talhari C, Engers R, Megahed M. Squamous cell carcinoma arising from a localized vulval lesion of Hailey–Hailey disease after tacrolimus therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010;203:e5–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 21  Hurd DS, Johnston C, Bevins A. A case report of Hailey–Hailey disease treated with alefacept (Amevive). Br J Dermatol 2008;158:399–401. Pubmed link
    • 22  Ruiz‐Rodriguez R, Alvarez JG, Jaen P, et al. Photodynamic therapy with 5‐aminolaevulinic acid for recalcitrant familial benign pemphigus (Hailey–Hailey disease). J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47:740–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 23  Collet Villette AM, Richard MA, Fouquet F, et al. Treatment of Hailey–Hailey disease with carbon dioxide laser. Ann Derm Vénéréol 2005:132:637–40.

    Darier disease

    • 24  Ridley CM, Buckley CH. Darier's disease localized to the vulva. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991;98:112. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 25  Salopek TG, Krol A, Jimbow K. Case report of a Darier's disease localised to the vulva in a 5‐year old girl. Paediatr Dermatol 1993;10:146–8. Cross Ref link
    • 26  Vazquez J, Morales C, Gonzalez L, et al. Vulval squamous cell carcinoma arising in localized Darier's disease. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002;102:206–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Inflammatory dermatoses of the vulva

      Lichen sclerosus

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      • 29  Leibovitz A, Kaplun VV, Saposhnicov N, Habot B. Vulvovaginal examinations in elderly nursing home residents. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2000;31:1–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 30  Meyrick Thomas RH, Ridley CM, McGibbon DH, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and autoimmunity. Br J Dermatol 1988;118:41–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 31  Kreuter A, Kryvosheyeva Y, Terras S et al. Association of autoimmune diseases with lichen sclerosus in 532 male and female patients. Acta Derm Venereol 2013;93:238–41. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 32  Simpkin S, Oakley A. Clinical review of 202 patients with vulval lichen sclerosus: a possible association with psoriasis. Austral J Dermatol 2007;48:28–31. Cross Ref link
      • 33  Eberz B, Berghold A, Regauer S. High prevalence of concomitant anogenital psoriasis and extra‐gential psoroasos in adult women. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:1143–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 34  Yates VM, King CM, Dave VK. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus following radiation therapy. Arch Dermatol 1985;121:1044–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 35  Pass CJ. An unusual variant of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus: delayed appearance in a surgical scar. Cutis 1984;33:405–8. Pubmed link
      • 36  Anderton RL, Abele DC. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in a vaccination site. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:1787. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 37  Ostlere LS, Tildsley G, Holden CA. Lichen sclerosus over a strawberry naevus: a new example of the Koebner phenomenon? [Letter]. Clin Exp Dermatol 1996;21:394–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 38  Marren P, Millard PR, Wojnarowska F. Vulval lichen sclerosus: lack of correlation between duration of clinical symptoms and histological appearances. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1997;8:212–16. Cross Ref link
      • 39  Hart WR, Norris HJ, Helwig EB. Relation of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the vulva to development of squamous cell carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1975;45:369–77. Pubmed link
      • 40  Marren P, Dean D, Charnock M, et al. Basement membrane zone in lichen sclerosus: an immunohistological study. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:508–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 41  Farrell AM, Dean D, Millard PR, et al. Alterations in fibrillin as well as collagens I and III and elastin occur in vulval lichen sclerosus. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2001;15:212–17. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 42  Oikarinen A, Sandberg M, Aurskainen T, et al. Collagen biosynthesis in lichen sclerosus et atrophicus studied by biochemical in situ hybridization techniques. Acta Derm Venereol 1991;162:3–12.
      • 43  Tan SH, Derrick E, McKee PH, et al. Altered p53 expression and epidermal cell proliferation is seen in vulval lichen sclerosus. J Cutan Pathol 1994;21:316–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 44  Carli P, Cattaneo A, Pimpinelli N, et al. Immunohistochemical evidence of skin immune system involvement in vulvar lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Dermatologica 1991;182:18–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 45  Sherman V, McPherson T, Baldo M, et al. The high rate of familial lichen sclerosus suggests a genetic contribution: an observational cohort study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2010;24:1031–4. Pubmed link
      • 46  Meyrick‐Thomas RH, Kennedy CTC. The development of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in monozygotic twin girls. Br J Dermatol 1986;114:377–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 47  Cox NH, Mitchell JNS, Morley WN. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in non‐identical female twins. Br J Dermatol 1986;115:743. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 48  Marren P, Yell J, Charnock FM, et al. The association between lichen sclerosus and antigens of the HLA system. Br J Dermatol 1995;132:197–203. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 49  Powell J, Wojnarowska F, Winsey S, et al. Lichen sclerosus premenarche: autoimmunity and immunogenetics. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:481–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 50  Bhargava K, Lewis FM. Lichen sclerosus occurring on vaginal mucosa secondary to uterine prolapse. J Obstet Gynecol 2013;33(3):319–20. Cross Ref link
      • 51  Zendell K, Edwards L. Lichen sclerosus with vaginal involvement. Report of 2 cases and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 2013;149:1199–202.
      • 52  Dalziel K, Reynolds AJ, Holt PJA. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus with ocular and maxillary complications. Br J Dermatol 1983;116:735–7. Cross Ref link
      • 53  Kelly SC, Helm KF, Zaenglein AL. Lichen sclerosus of the lip. Pediatr Dermatol 2006;23:500–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 54  Foulds IS. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the scalp. Br J Dermatol 1980;103:197–200. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 55  Ramrakha‐Jones VS, Paul M, McHenry P, Burden AD. Nail dystrophy due to lichen sclerosus? Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:507–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 56  Chaudhry SI, Morgan PR, Neill SM. An unusual tongue. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006;31:831–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 57  Brown AR, Dunlap CL, Bussard DA, et al. Lichen sclerosus of the oral cavity: a report of two cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1997;84:165–70. Cross Ref link
      • 58  Marren P, Millard P, Chia Y, et al. Mucosal lichen sclerosus/lichen planus overlap. Br J Dermatol 1994;131:118–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 59  Farrell AM, Marren PM, Wojnarowska F. Genital lichen sclerosus associated with morphoea or systemic sclerosis: clinical and HLA characteristics. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:598–603. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 60  Handfield Jones SE, Hinde FJR, Kennedy CTC. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in children misdiagnosed as sexual abuse. BMJ 1987;294:1404–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 61  Jenny C, Kirbu P, Furquay D. Genital lichen sclerosus mistaken for child sexual abuse. Pediatrics 1989;83:597–9. Pubmed link
      • 62  Hey F, Bucham PC, Littlewood JM, Hall RI. Differential diagnosis in child sexual abuse. Lancet 1986;ii:792–6.
      • 63  Levine V, Sanchez M, Nestor M. Localized vulvar pemphigoid in a child misdiagnosed as sexual abuse. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:804–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 64  Warrington SA, San Lazaro C. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and sexual abuse. Arch Dis Child 1996;75:512–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 65  Wallace HJ. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Trans St John's Hosp Dermatol Soc 1971;57:9–30.
      • 66  Zaki I, Dalziel KL, Solomons FA, et al. The under‐reporting of skin disease in association with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Clin Exp Dermatol 1997;21:334–7. Cross Ref link
      • 67  Walkden V, Chia Y, Wojnarowska F. The association of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva and lichen sclerosus: implications for management and follow‐up. J Obstet Gynecol 1997;17:551–3. Cross Ref link
      • 68  Leibowitch M, Neill S, Pelisse M, Moyal‐Barracco M. The epithelial changes associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: a review of the clinical, histological and viral findings in 78 women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:1135–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 69  Vilmer C, Cavelier‐Balloy B, Nogues C, et al. Analysis of alterations adjacent to invasive vulvar cancer and their relationship with the associated carcinoma: a study of 67 cases. Eur J Gynecol Oncol 1998;19:25–31.
      • 70  Carli P, Cattaneo A, de Magnis A, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in lichen sclerosus: a longitudinal cohort study. Eur J Cancer Prev 1995;4:491–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 71  Toki T, Kurman RJ, Park JS, et al. Probable non‐papillomavirus aetiology of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva in older women: a clinicopathologic study using in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1991;10:107–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 72  Carlson BC, Hofer MD, Ballek N, et al. Protein markers of malignant potential in penile and vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Urol 2013;190:399–406. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 73  Brisigotti M, Moreno A, Murcia C, et al. Verrucous carcinoma of the vulva: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of five cases. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1989;8:1–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 74  Derrick EK, Ridley CM, Kobza‐Black A, et al. A clinical study of 23 cases of female anogential carcinoma. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1217–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 75  Meyrick‐Thomas RH, McGibbon DH, Munro DD. Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva in association with vulval lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. J R Soc Med 1985;78:16–18.
      • 76  Friedman RJ, Kopf AW, Jones WB. Malignant melanoma in association with lichen sclerosus on the vulva of a 14‐year‐old. Am J Dermatopathol 1984;6(Suppl. 1):253–6. Pubmed link
      • 77  Hassanein AM, Mrstik ME, Hardt NS, et al. Malignant melanoma associated with lichen sclerosus in the vulva of a 10‐year‐old. Pediatr Dermatol 2004;21:473–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 78  Rosamilia LL, Schwartz JL, Lowe L, et al. Vulvar melanoma in a 10‐year‐old girl in association with lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 54(Suppl. 1):S52–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 79  El Shabrawi‐Caelen L, Soyer HP, Schaeppi HL, et al. Genital lentigines and melanocytic nevi with superimposed lichen sclerosus: a diagnostic challenge. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;50:690–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 80  Pinto A, Mclaren SH, Paopas DP, Magro CM. Genital melanocytic nevus arising in a background of lichen sclerosus in a 7‐year‐old female: the diagnostic pitfall with malignant melanoma. A literature review. Am J Dermatopathol 2012;34:838–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 81  Cooper S, Gao X‐H, Powell JJ, Wojnarowska F. Does treatment of lichen sclerosus influence its prognosis? Arch Dermatol 2004:140:702–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 82  Smith SD, Fischer G. Childhood onset vulval lichen sclerosus does not resolve at puberty: a prospective case series. Paedtr Dermatol 2009;26:725–9. Cross Ref link
      • 83  Chi CC, Kitschig G, Baldo M, Brackenbury F, Lewis F, Wojnarowska F. Topical interventions of genital lichen sclerosus [Review]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;Dec. 7(12):CD008240.
      • 84  Neill SM, Lewis FM, Tatnall FM, Cox NH. British Association of Dermatologists’ guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus 2010. Br J Dermatol 2010;163:672–82. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 85  Bornstein J, Heifetz S, Kellner Y, et al. Clobetasol dipropionate 0.05% versus testosterone 2% topical application for severe vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;178:80–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 86  Virgili A, Lauriola MM, Mantovani L, Corazza M. Vulvar lichen sclerosus: 11 women treated with tacrolimus 0.1% ointment. Acta Derm Venereol 2007;87:69–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 87  Nissi R, Eriksen H, Risteli J, Niemimaa M. Pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of lichen sclerosus. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2007;63:151–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 88  Bulbul Baskan E, Turan H, Tunali S, et al. Open‐label trial of cyclosporine for vulvar lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007;57:276–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 89  Beattie PE, Dawe RS, Ferguson J, Ibbotson SH. UVA1 phototherapy for genital lichen sclerosus. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006;31:343–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 90  Rouzier R, Haddad B, Deyrolle C, et al. Perineoplasty for the treatment of introital stenosis related to vulval lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:49–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Lichen planus

      • 91  Ebrahimi M, Lundqvist L, Wahlin YB, Nylander E. Mucosal lichen planus, a systemic disease requiring multidisciplinary care: a cross‐sectional clinical review from a multi‐disciplinary perspective. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2012:16;377–80. Cross Ref link
      • 92  Micheletti L, Preti M, Bogliatto F, Zanoto‐Valentino MC, Ghiringhello B, Massobrio M. Vulval lichen planus in the practice of a vulval clinic. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1349–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 93  Belfiore P, Di Fede O, Cabibi D, et al. Prevalence of vulval lichen planus in a cohort of women with oral lichen planus: an interdisciplinary study. Br J Dermatol 2006;155;994–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 94  Lewis Boyd AS, Neldner KH. Lichen planus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991:25;593–619. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 95  Lewis FM, Shah M, Harrington CI. Vulval involvement in lichen planus: a study of 37 women. Br J Dermatol 1996;135:89–91. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 96  Carrozzo M, Pellicano R. Lichen planus and hepatitis C infection: an updated critical review. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 2008;54:65–74. Pubmed link
      • 97  Cooper SM, Dean D, Allen J, Kirtschig G, Wojnarowska F. Erosive lichen planus of the vulva: weak circulating basement membrane zone antibodies are present. Clin Exp Dermatol 2005:30:551–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 98  Valsecchi R, Bontempelli M, Rossi A, et al. HLA‐DR and DQ antigens in lichen planus. Acta Dermato‐Venereol 1988;68:77–80.
      • 99  Setterfield JF, Neill SM, Shirlaw PJ, et al. The vulvovaginal gingival syndrome: a severe subgroup of lichen planus with characteristic clinical features and a novel association with the Class II HLA DQB1*0201 allele. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;55;98–113. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 100  Grunwald MH, Zvulunov A, Halevy S. Lichen plano‐pilaris of the vulva. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:477–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 101  Simpson RC, Thomas KS, Leighton P, Murphy R. Diagnostic criteria for erosive lichen planus affecting the vulva; an international electronic‐Delphi consensus exercise. Br J Dermatol 2013;169:337–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 102  Pelisse M, Leibowitch M, Sedel D, Hewitt J. Un nouveau syndrome vulvo‐vagino‐gingival. Lichen plan erosive plurimuqueux. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1982;109:797–8.
      • 103  Eisen D. The vulvo‐vagino‐gingival syndrome of lichen planus. Arch Dermatol 1994;130;1379–82. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 104  Rogers RS, III, Eisen D. Erosive lichen planus with genital lesions: the vulvo‐vagino‐gingival syndrome and the peno‐gingival syndrome. Dermatol Clin 2003;21;91–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 105  Edwards L, Friedrich EG, Jr. Desquamative vaginitis: lichen planus in disguise. Obstet Gynecol 1988;71:832–6. Pubmed link
      • 106  Moyal‐Barracco M, Lautier‐Frau M, Bechéral PA, et al. Lichen plan conjunctival: une observation. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1993;120:857–9.
      • 107  Webber NK, Setterfield JF, Lewis FM, Neill SM. Lacrimal canalicular duct scarring in patients with lichen planus. Arch Dermatol 2012;148:224–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 108  Katzka DA, Smyrk TC, Bruce AJ, Romero Y, Alexander JA, Murray JA. Variations in presentations of esophageal involvement in lichen planus. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8;777–82. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 109  Fox LP, Lightdale CJ, Grossman ME. Lichen planus of the oesophagus: what dermatologists need to know. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011;65:175–83. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 110  Martin L, Mariniere S, Machet MC, Robier A, Vailliant L. Bilateral conductive deafness related to erosive lichen planus. J Laryngol Otol 1998;112:365–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 111  Marren P, Millard P, Chia Y, Wojnarowska F. Mucosal lichen sclerosus/lichen planus overlap syndromes. Br J Dermatol 1994;131:118–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 112  Fung MA, LeBoit PE. Light microscopic criteria for the diagnosis of early vulvar lichen sclerosus: a comparison with lichen planus. Am J Surg Pathol 1998;22:473–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 113  Lewis FM, Harrington CI. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in vulval lichen planus. Br J Dermatol 1994;131:703–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 114  Dwyer CM, Kerr RE, Millan DW. Squamous carcinoma following lichen planus of the vulva. Clin Exp Dermatol 1995;20:171–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 115  Franck JM, Young AW, Jr. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ arising within lichen planus of the vulva. Dermatol Surg 1995;21:890–4. Pubmed link
      • 116  Zaki I, Dalziel KL, Solomons FA, et al. The under‐reporting of skin disease in association with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Clin Exp Dermatol 1997;21:334–7. Cross Ref link
      • 117  Derrick EK, Ridley CM, Kobza‐Black A, et al. A clinical study of 23 cases of female anogenital carcinoma. Br J Dermatol 2000;143:1217–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 118  Chew A, Savarese I, Fenton D, Neill SM, Stefanato CM, Lewis FM. Vulval and oral lichen planus in patients with fibrosing frontal alopecia. Br J Dermatol 2014;170:218–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 119  Lewis FM, Agarwal A, Neill SM, Calonje EJ, Stefanato CM. The spectrum of histopathological patterns secondary to the topical application of EMLA on vulval epithelium: clinico‐pathological correlation in 3 cases. J Cutan Pathol 2013:40:708–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 120  Cooper SM, Haefner H, Abrahams‐Gessel S, Margesson LJ. Vulvovaginal lichen planus treatment: a survey of current practices. Arch Dermatol 2008;144:1520–1. Pubmed link
      • 121  Cheng S, Kirtschig G, Cooper S, Thornhill M, Leonardi‐Bee J, Murphy R. Treatments for erosive lichen planus affecting mucosal sites. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;Feb. 15(2):CD008092.
      • 122  Cooper SM, Wojnarowska F. Influence of treatment of erosive lichen planus of the vulva on its prognosis. Arch Dermatol 2006;142:289–294. Pubmed link
      • 123  Anderson M, Kutzner S, Kaufman RH. Treatment of vulvovaginal lichen planus with vaginal hydrocortisone suppositories. Obstet Gynecol 2002:100;359–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 124  Vente C, Reich K, Rupprecht R, Neumann C. Erosive mucosal lichen planus: response to topical treatment with tacrolimus. Br J Dermatol 1999:140:338–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 125  Byrd JA, Davis MDP, Rogers RS. Recalcitrant symptomatic vulvar lichen planus: response to topical tacrolimus. Arch Dermatol 2004;140:715–20. Pubmed link
      • 126  Lonsdale‐Eccles A, Velangi SS. Topical pimecrolimus in the treatment of genital lichen planus: a prospective case series. Br J Dermatol 2005;153:390–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 127  Ormerod AD. Topical tacrolimus and pimecrolimus and the risk of cancer: how much cause for concern? Br J Dermatol 2005;153:701–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 128  Edey K, Bisson D, Kennedy C. Topical tacrolimus in the management of lichen sclerosus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2006;113:1482. Cross Ref link
      • 129  Panagiotopoulou N, Wong CSM, Winter‐Roach B. Vulvovaginal‐gingival syndrome. J Obstet Gynaecol 2010;30:226–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 130  Jang N, Fischer G. Treatment of erosive vulvovaginal lichen planus with methotrexate. Australas J Dermatol 2008;49:216–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 131  Kortegkangas‐Savolainen O, Kiiholma P. Treatment of vulvovaginal erosive and stenosiing lichen planus by surgical dilatation and methotrexate. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 2007;86:339–43. Cross Ref link
      • 132  Stany M, Winter WE, III, Elkas JC, Scott Rose G. The use of acellular dermal graft for vulvovaginal reconstruction in a patient with lichen planus. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:1268–71 Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 133  Parmentier L, Bron B, Prins C, et al. Mucocutaneous lichen planus with oesophageal involvement. Successful treatment with an anti‐CD20 monoclonal antibody. Arch Dermatol 2008;144:1427–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 134  Asarch A, Gottlieb AB, Lee J, et al. Lichen planus‐like eruptions: an emerging side effect of tumor necrosis factor‐α antagonists. J Am Acad Dermatol 2009;61:104–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 135  Worsnop F, Wee J, Natkunarajah J, Moosa Y, Marsden R. Reaction to biological drugs: infliximab for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis subsequently riggering erosive lichen planus. Clin Exp Dermatol 2012;37:879–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Zoon's vulvitis

      • 136  Scurry J, Dennerstein G, Brennan J. Vulvitis corcumscripta. A clinico‐pathological entity? J Reprod Med 1993;38:14–18. Pubmed link
      • 137  Woodruff JD, Sussman J, Shakfeh S. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis: a report of four cases. J Reprod Med 1989;34:369–72. Pubmed link
      • 138  Zoon JJ. Balanitis and vulvitis plasma cellularis. Dermatologica 1955;111:157. Cross Ref link
      • 139  Kato T, Kuramoto Y, Tadaki T, et al. Chronic vulvar purpura. Dermatologica 1990;180:174–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 140  Li Q, Leopold K, Carlson JA. Chronic vulvar purpura: persistent pigmented purpuric dermatitis (lichen aureus) of the vulva or plasma cell (Zoon's) vulvitis? J Cutan Pathol 2003;30:572–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 141  Gunter J, Golitz L. Topical misoprostol therapy for plasma cell vulvitis: a case series. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2005;9:176–80. Cross Ref link
      • 142  Morioka S, Nakajima S, Yaguchi H, et al. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis treated successfully with interferon alpha. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:947–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 143  Virgili A, Mantovani L, Lauriola MM, et al. Tacrolimus 0.1% ointment: is it really effective in plasma cell vulvitis? Dermatology 2008;216:243–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Irritant eczema

      • 144  Britz MB, Maibach HI. Human cutaneous vulvar reactivity to irritants. Contact Dermatitis 1979;5:375–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 145  Elsner P, Wilhelm D, Maibach HI. Multiple parameter assessment of vulvar irritant contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1990;23:20–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 146  Virgili A, Corazza M, Califono A. Diaper dermatitis in an adult. A case of erythema papuloerosive of Sevestre and Jacquet. J Reprod Med 1998;43:949–51. Pubmed link

      Allergic contact dermatitis

      • 147  O'Gorman SM, Torgerson RR. Allergic contsct dermatitis of the vulva. Dermatitis 2013;24:64–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 148  Marren P, Wojnarowska F, Powell S. Allergic contact dermatitis and vulvar dermatoses. Br J Dermatol 1992;126:52–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 149  Lewis FM, Harrington CI, Gawkrodger DJ. Contact sensitivity in pruritus vulvae: a common and manageable problem. Contact Dermatitis 1994;31:264–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 150  Haverhoek E, Reid C, Gordon L, et al. Prospective study of patch tests in patients with vulval pruritus. Australas J Dermatol 2008;49:80–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 151  Goldsmith PC, Rycroft RJ, White IR, et al. Contact sensitivity in women with anogenital dermatoses. Contact Dermatitis 1997;36:174–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 152  Robin J. Contact dermatitis to acetarsol. Contact Dermatitis 1978;4:309–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 153  Romaguera C, Grimalt F. Contact dermatitis from a copper‐containing IUD. Contact Dermatitis 1981;7:163–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 154  Corazza M, Vigili A, Mantovani L. Vulval contact dermatitis to nifuratel. Contact Dermatitis 1992;27:273–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 155  Sterry W, Schmoll M. Contact urticaria and dermatitis from self‐adhesive pads. Contact Dermatitis 1985;13:284–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 156  Bircher AJ, Hirsbrunner P, Langauer S. Allergic contact dermatitis of the genitals to additives in condoms. Contact Dermatitis 1993;28:125–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 157  Corazza M, Mantovani L, Montanari A, Virgili A. Allergic contact dermatitis from transdermal estradiol and systemic contact dermatitis from oral estradiol. J Reprod Med 2002;47:507–9. Pubmed link

      Allergic contact urticaria

      • 158  Kint B, Degreef H, Dooms‐Goossens A. Combined allergy to human seminal plasma and latex: case report and review of the literature. Contact Dermatitis 1994;30:7–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 159  Freeman S. Woman allergic to husband's sweat and semen. Contact Dermatitis 1986;14:110–12. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 160  Green RL, Green MA. Post‐coital urticaria in a penicillin‐sensitive patient: possible seminal transfer of penicillin. JAMA 1985;254:531. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 161  Sell MB. Sensitization to thioridazine through sexual intercourse. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:271–2. Pubmed link
      • 162  Paladine WJ, Cunningham TJ, Donovan MA, Dumper CW. Possible sensitivity to vinblastine in prostatic or seminal fluid [Letter]. N Engl J Med 1975;292:52. Pubmed link
      • 163  Lee‐Wong M, Collins JS, Nozad C, Resnick DJ. Diagnosis and treatment of human seminal plasma hypersensitivity. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:538–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Lichen simplex

      • 164  McLachlin CM, Mutter GL, Crum CP. Multinucleated atypia of the vulva: report of a distinct entity not associated with human papillomavirus. Am J Surg Pathol 1994;18:1233–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 165  LeBoit PE. Multinucleated atypia. Am J Surg Pathol 1996;20:507. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 166  Tagamai H, Uehara M. Multinucleated epidermal giant cells in inflammatory skin diseases. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:23–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Psoriasis

      • 167  Zamirska A, Reich A, Berny‐Moreno J, et al. Vulvar pruritus and burning sensation in women with psoriasis. Acta Dermvenereol 2008;88:132–5.
      • 168  Kapila S, Bradford J, Fischer G. Vulvar psoriasis in adults and children: a clinical audit of 194 cases and review of the literature. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2012;16:108. Cross Ref link
      • 169  Meeuwis KA, van de Kerkhof PC, Massuger LF, et al. Patients' experience of psoriasis in the gential area. Dermatology 2012;224:271–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 170  Simpkin S, Oakley A. Clinical review of 202 patients with vulval lichen sclerosus: a possible association with psoriasis. Aust J Dermatol 2007;48:28–31. Cross Ref link
      • 171  Eberz B, Berghold A, Regauer S. High prevalence of concomitant anogenital lichen sclerosus and extra‐genital psoriasis in adult women. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:1143–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 172  Maaty AS, Gomaa AH, Mohammed GF, et al. Assessment of female sexual function in patients with psoriasis. J Sex Med 2013;10:1545–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 173  Albert S, Neill S, Derrick EK, Calonje EJ. Psoriasis associated with vulval scarring. Clin Exp Dermatol 2004;29:354–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 174  Meeuwis K, de Hullu J, Massuger L, et al. Genital psoriasis: a systematic literature review on this hidden skin disease. Acta Derm Venereol 2011;91:5–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 175  Guglielmetti A, Conlledo R, Bedoya J, et al. Inverse psoriasis involving genital skin folds: successful therapy with dapsone. Dermatol Ther 2012;2:15. Cross Ref link

      Reactive arthritis

      • 176  Edwards L, Hansen R. Reiter's syndrome of the vulva. The psoriasis spectrum. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:811–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Ulcerative and bullous disorders

        Lipschutz ulceration

        • 177  Lipschutz B. Über eine eigenartige Geschwüursform des weiblichen Genitales (ulcus vulvae acutum). Arch Dermatol Syphilis (Berlin) 1913;114:363–96. Cross Ref link
        • 178  Barnes CJ, Alio AB, Cunningham BB, et al. Epstein–Barr virus associated genital ulcers: an under‐recognised disorder. Paediatr Dermatol 2007;24:130. Cross Ref link
        • 179  Portnoy J, Arontheim GA, Ghibu F, et al. Recovery of Epstein–Barr virus from genital ulcers. N Engl J Med 1984;311:966–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 180  Halvorsen JA, Brevig T, Aas T, et al. Genital ulcers as initial manifestation of Epstein–Barr virus infection: two new cases and review of the literature. Acta Derm Venereol 2006;86:439–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 181  Chanal J, Carlotti A, Lande H, et al. Lipschutz gential ulceration associated with mumps. Dermatology 2010;221;292–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
        • 182  Eghbali H, Lacut JY, Hoernie B. Genital infectious mononucleosis mimicking high grade non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma. Med Mal Infect 1989;19:83–6. Cross Ref link

        Behçet disease

        • 183  Morgan ED, Laszlo JDB, Stumpf PG. Incomplete Behcet's syndrome in the differential diagnosis of genital ulceration and post‐coital bleeding: a case report. J Reprod Med 1988;33:844–6. Pubmed link

        Immunobullous disease

        • 184  Marren P, Wojnarowska F, Venning V, Wilson C, Nayar M. Vulvar involvement in auto‐immune bullous diseases. J Reprod Med 1993;38:101–7. Pubmed link
        • 185  Batta K, Munday PE, Tatnall FM. Pemphigus vulgaris localized to the vagina and presenting as a chronic vaginal discharge. Br J Dermatol 1999;140:945–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

        Pigmentary disorders

          Vulval melanosis

          • 186  Barnhill RI, Alber LS, Shama SK, et al. Genital lentiginosis: a clinical and histopathological study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:453–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 187  Karney MY, Cassidy MS, Zahn CM. Melanosis of the vagina. A case report. J Reprod Med 2001;46:389–91. Pubmed link

          Acanthosis nigricans

          • 188  Grasinger CC, Wild RA, Parker IJ. Vulvar acanthosis nigricans: a marker for insulin resistance in hirsute women. Fertil Steril 1993;59:583–6. Pubmed link

          Dowling–Degos disease

          • 189  Milde P, Goerz G, Plewig G. Dowling–Degos disease with exclusively genital manifestations. Hautarzt 1992;43:369–72. Pubmed link
          • 190  O'Goshi K, Terui T, Tagami H. Dowling–Degos disease affecting the vulva. Acta Derm Venereol 2001;81:148. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 191  Ong Kang H, Hur J, Woo Lee J, et al. A case of Dowling–Degos disease on the vulva. Ann Dermatol 2011;23:205–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

          Vulval oedema

          • 192  Neill SM, Lewis FM. Non‐infective cutaneous conditions of the vulva. In: Neill SM, Lewis FM, eds. Ridley's The Vulva, 3rd edn. London: Wiley Blackwell, 2009:129–30. Cross Ref link
          • 193  Abu‐Hamad A, Provencher D, Ganjei P, et al. Lymphangioma circumscriptum of the vulva: case report and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:496–9. Pubmed link
          • 194  Brown JV, Stenchever MA. Cavernous lymphangioma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:877–9. Pubmed link
          • 195  Baeyens L, Vermeesch E, Bourgeois P. Bicyclist's vulva: observational study. BMJ 2002;325:138. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

          Crohn disease

          • 196  Urbanek M, McKee PH, Neill SM. Vulval Crohn's: difficulties in diagnosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1996;21:211–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 197  Foo WC, Papalas JA, Robboy SJ, Selim MA. Vulvar manifestations of Crohn's disease. Am J Dermatopathol 2011;33:588–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 198  Martin J, Holdstock G. Isolated vulval oedema as a feature of Crohn's disease. J Obstet Gynecol 1997;17:92–3. Cross Ref link
          • 199  Lally MR, Orenstein SR, Cohen BA. Crohn's disease of the vulva in an 8‐year‐old girl. Paediatr Dermatol 1988;5:103–6. Cross Ref link
          • 200  Hackel H, Hartmann AA, Burg G. Vulvitis granulomatosa and anoperineitis granulomatosa. Dermatologica 1991;182:128–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 201  Knopf B, Schaarschmidt H, Wollina U. Monosymptomatisches Melkersson–Rosenthal syndrom mit nachfolgender vulvitis und perivulvitis granulomatosa. Hautarzt 1992;43:711–13. Pubmed link
          • 202  Prezyna AP, Kalyanaraman B. Bowen's carcinoma in vulvo‐vaginal Crohn's disease (regional enterocolitis): report of first case. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1977;128:914–15. Pubmed link
          • 203  Greenstein AJ, Gennuso R, Sachar DB, et al. Extraintestinal cancers in inflammatory bowel disease. Cancer 1985;56:2914–21. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 204  Casson DH, Eltumi M, Tomlin S, et al. Topical tacrolimus may be effective in the treatment of oral and perineal Crohn's disease. Gut 2000;47:436–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 205  Preston W, Hudson N, Lewis FM. Treatment of vulval Crohn's disease with infliximab. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006;31:378–80. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

          Non‐sexually transmitted infections

          • 206  Greer IA. Orange periods. BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 1984;289:323. Cross Ref link
          • 207  Kacker TP. Vulvovaginitis in an adult with threadworms in the vagina. Br J Vener Dis 1973;49:314–15. Pubmed link

          Staphylococcal infections

          • 208  Fogo A, Kemp N, Morris‐Jones R. PVL positive Staphylococcus aureus skin infections. BMJ 2011;9:343.

          Streptococcal infections

          • 209  Shaw C, Mason M, Scoular A. Group B streptococcus carriage and vulvovaginal symotoms: causal or casual? A case control study in a GUM clinic population. Sex Trans Infect 2003;79:246–8. Cross Ref link

          Mycobacterial infections

          • 210  Agarwal J, Gupta KJ. Female genital tuberculosis – a retrospective clinic‐pathological study of 501 cases. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 1993;36:389–97. Pubmed link
          • 211  Tham SN, Choong HL. Primary tuberculous chancre in a renal transplant patient. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;26:342–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 212  Bonar BE, Rabson AS. Gynaecological aspects of leprosy. Obstet Gynecol 1957;9:33–8. Pubmed link

          Malakoplakia

          • 213  Singh M, Kaur S, Vijpayer BK, Banerjee AK. Cutaneous malakoplakia with dermatomyositis. Int J Dermatol 1987;26:190–1. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 214  Sian CS, McCabe RE, Lattes CG. Malakoplakia of skin and subcutaneous tissue in a renal transplant recipient. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:654–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 215  Kohl SK, Hans CP. Cutaneous malakoplakia. Arch Path Lab Med 2008;132:113–17. Pubmed link
          • 216  Paquin ML, Davis JR, Weiner S. Malakoplakia of Bartholin's gland. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1986;110:757–8. Pubmed link

          Other bacterial infections

          • 217  Wagman H. Genital actinomycosis. Proc R Soc Med 1975;68:228–30. Pubmed link
          • 218  Dienes L, Edsall G. Observations on the L‐organism of Kleinberger. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1937;36:740–5. Cross Ref link
          • 219  Davies JA, Rees E, Jobson D, et al. Isolation of Chlamydia trachomatis from Bartholin's ducts. Br J Vener Dis 1978;54:409–13. Pubmed link
          • 220  Purdie DW, Cartie MJ, McLeod TIF. Tubo‐ovarian actinomycosis and the intrauterine contraceptive device. BMJ 1977;ii:1392. Cross Ref link
          • 221  Lomax CW, Harbert GM, Thornton WN. Actinomycosis of the genital tract. Obstet Gynecol 1976;48:341–6. Pubmed link

          Candidal vulvo‐vaginitis

          • 222  Sobel JD. Vaginal infections in adult women. Med Clin North Am 1990;74:1573–602. Pubmed link

          Tinea cruris

          • 223  Bumgarner FE, Burke RC. Pityriaisis versicolor: atypical clinical and mycological variants. Arch Dermatol 1949;59:192–4. Cross Ref link
          • 224  Jelliffe DB, Jacobson FW. The clinical picture of tinea versicolor in negro infants. J Trop Med Hygiene 1954;57:290–2.
          • 225  Margolis DJ, Weinberg JM, Tangoren IA, et al. Trichophytic granuloma of the vulva. Dermatology 1998;197:69–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 226  Scott RA, Gallis HA, Livengood CH. Phycomycosis of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:675–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 227  Kakoti LM, Dey NC. Chronic blastomycosis in India. J Indian Med Assoc 1957;28:351. Pubmed link
          • 228  Blocher KS, Weeks JA, Noble RC. Cutaneous cryptococcal infection presenting as vulval lesion. Genitourin Med 1987;63:341–3. Pubmed link

          Poxvirus infections

          • 229  James JRE. Orf in man. BMJ 1968;iii:804–6. Cross Ref link
          • 230  Claudy AL, Gaudin OG, Granovillet R. Pox virus infection in Darier's disease. Clin Exp Dermatol 1982;7:260–5. Cross Ref link
          • 231  Syed TA, Lundin S, Ahmad M. Topical 0.3% and 0.5% podophyllotoxin cream for self‐treatment of molluscum contagiosum in males. A placebo‐controlled, double‐blind study. Dermatology 1994;189:65–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
          • 232  Syed TA, Goswami J, Abbas AO, Seyed AA. Treatment of molluscum contagiosum in males with an analog of imiquimod 1% in cream: a placebo‐controlled, double‐blind study. J Dermatol 1998;25:309–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

          Non‐sexually transmitted infections

            Viral infections

              Herpes simplex

              • 233  Frimer M, Chudnoff S, Hebert T, Shahabi S. Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia mimicking vulvar cancer in a patient with AIDS. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2011;15:66–8. Cross Ref link
              • 234  Fugelso PD, Newman SB, Beamer JE. Herpes zoster of the anogenital area affecting urination and defaecation. Br J Dermatol 1973;89:285–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 235  Thiboutot DM, Beckford A, Mart CA, et al. Cytomegalovirus diaper dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1991;127:396–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 236  Lautenschlager S, Eichmann A. The heterogenous clinical spectrum of genital herpes. Dermatology 2001;202:211–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 237  Gupta R, Warren T, Wald A. Genital herpes. Lancet 2007;370:2127–37. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

              Human papillomavirus infection

              • 238  Sinclair KA, Woods CR, Kirse DJ, Sinal SH. Anogential and respiratory tract human papilloma virus infections among children:age, gender, and potential transmission through sexual abuse. Pediatrics 2005;116:815–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 239  Garland SM, Hernandez‐Avila M, Wheeler SM, et al. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papilloma virus to prevent ano‐genital diseases. N Eng J Med 2007;356:1928–43. Cross Ref link

              Benign tumours

              • 240  Fite C, Plantier F, Dupin N, Anil MF, Moyal‐Barracco M. Vulvar verruciform xanthoma: ten cases associated with lichen sclerosus, lichen planus or other conditions. Arch Dermatol 2011;147:1087–92. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 241  Gifford RRM, Birch HW. Granular cell myoblastoma of multicentric origin involving the vulva: a case report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973;117:184–7. Pubmed link
              • 242  Sadler WP, Docherty MB. Malignant myoblastoma vulvae. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1951;61:1047–55. Pubmed link
              • 243  Juang YH, Chuang YH, Kuo TT, et al. Vulvar syringoma: a clinicopathologic and immunohistologic syudy of 18 patients and results of treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003;48:735–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 244  O'Connell JX, Young RH, Nielsen GP, et al. Nodular fasciitis of the vulva: a study of six cases and a review of the literature. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1997;16:117–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 245  Kohorn EI, Merino MJ, Goldenhersh M. Vulvar pain and dyspareunia due to a glomus tumor. Obstet Gynecol 1986;67:S41–2. Cross Ref link
              • 246  Katz VL, Askin FB, Bosch BD. Glomus tumor of the vulva: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1986;67:S43–5. Cross Ref link

              Mucinous cysts

              • 247  Oi RH, Munn R. Mucous cysts of the vulvar vestibule. Human Pathol 1982;13:584–6. Cross Ref link
              • 248  Robboy SJ, Ross JS, Prat J, et al. Urogenital sinus origin of mucinous and ciliated cysts of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1978;51:347–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

              Bartholin's cyst

              • 249  Sheard JD, Vijayanand R, Herrington CS, et al. High‐grade squamous neoplasm in a Bartholin's gland cysts associated with HPV16 infection. Histopathology 2000;37:87–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

              Papillary hidradenoma

              • 250  Van der Putte SCJ. Anogenital ‘sweat’ glands: histology and pathology of a gland that may mimic mammary glands. Am J Dermatopathol 1991;13:557–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 251  Basta A, Madej JG. Hydradenoma of the vulva: incidence and clinical observations. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 1990;11:185–9. Pubmed link
              • 252  Veraldi S, Schianchi‐Veraldi R, Marini D. Hidradenoma papilliferum of the vulva: report of a case characterized by unusual clinical behaviour. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1990;16:674–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 253  Duhan N, Kalra R, Singh S, Rajotia N. Hidradenoma papilliferum of the vulva: a case report and review of the literature. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2011;284:1015–17. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 254  Pelosi G, Martignoni, G, Bonetti F. Intraductal carcinoma of mammary‐type apocrine epithelium arising within a papillary hydradenoma of the vulva: report of a case and review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1991;115:1249–54. Pubmed link
              • 255  Bannatyne P, Elliott P, Russell P. Vulvar adenosquamous carcinoma arising in a hidradenoma papilliferum with rapidly fatal outcome: a case report. Gynecol Oncol 1989;35:395–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

              Cutaneous endometriosis

              • 256  Agarwal A, Fong YF. Cutaneous endometriosis. Singapore Med J 2008;49:704–9. Pubmed link

              Atypical genital naevi

              • 257  Rock B, Hood AF, Rock JA. Prospective study of vulvar nevi. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:104–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
              • 258  Brenn T. Atypical genital naevus. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2011;135:317–20. Pubmed link
              • 259  Ribé A. Melanocytic lesions of the genital area with attention given to atypical genital nevi. J Cutan Pathol 2008;35(Suppl. 2):24–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

              Pre‐malignant conditions

                Vulval intraepithelial neoplasia

                • 260  Terlou A, Blok LJ, Helmerhorst TJM, van Beurden M. Premalignant epithelial disorders of the uvlva: squamous vulvar intra‐epithelial neoplasia, vulvar Paget's and melanoma in situ. Acta Obstet Gynecol 2010:89:741–8. Cross Ref link
                • 261  Gormley RH, Kovarik CL. Human papillomavirus‐related genital disease in the immunocompromised host. J Am Acad Dermatol 2012;66:1–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 262  Raju, RR, Goldblum JR, Hart WR. Pagetoid squamous cell carcinoma in situ (pagetoid Bowen's disease) of the external genitalia. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2003;22:127–35. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 263  Hillemanns P, Wang X. Integration of HPV‐16 and HPV‐18 DNA in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 2006;100:276–82. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 264  Van Beurden M, ten Kate FW, Tjong‐A‐Hung SP, et al. Papillomavirus DNA in multicentric vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1998;17:12–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 265  Sideri M, Jones RW, Wilkinson EJ, et al. Squamous vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: 2004 modified terminology, ISSVD Vulvaroncology Subcommittee. J Reprod Med 2005;50:807–10. Pubmed link
                • 266  Van de Nieuwenhof HP, Massuger LF, van den Avoort IA, et al. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma development after diagnosis of VIN increases with age. Eur J Cancer 2009;45:851–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 267  Chafe W, Richards A, Morgan L, Wilkinson E. Unrecognized invasive carcinoma in vulval intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN). Gynecol Oncol 1988;31:154–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 268  Van Seters M, van beurden M, ten Kate FJW, et al. Treatment of vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia with topical imiquimod. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1465–73. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                • 269  Le T, Menard C, Hicks‐Boucher W, et al. Final results of a phase 2 study using continuous 5% imiquimod cream application in the primary treatment of high‐grade vulval intraepithelial neoplasia. Gynecol Oncol 2007;106:579–84. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                Malignant neoplasms

                  Squamous cell carcinoma

                  • 270  Anderson WA, Franquemont DW, Williams J, et al. Vulval squamous cell carcinoma and papillomavirus: two separate entities? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:329–36. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 271  Crum C. Carcinoma of the vulva: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:448–58. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 272  Van Seters M, ten Kate FJ, van Beurden M, et al. In the absence of (early) invasive carcinoma, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia associated with lichen sclerosus is mainly of undifferentiated type: new insights in histology and aetiology. J Clin Pathol 2007;60:504–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 273  Benedet JL, Hacker NF, Ngan HYS, et al. Staging classifications and clinical practice guidelines of gynaecologic cancers. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2000;70:209–62. Cross Ref link
                  • 274  Ghurani GB, Penalver MA. An update on vulval cancer. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 2001;185:294–99. Cross Ref link
                  • 275  Rouzier R, Paniel BJ. Management of vulval cancers In: Neill SM, Lewis FM, eds. Ridley's The Vulva, 3rd edn. London: Wiley Blackwell, 2009:239–54. Cross Ref link

                  Verrucous carcinoma

                  • 276  Japaze H, Dinh TV, Woodruff JD. Verrucous carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1982;60:462–6. Pubmed link
                  • 277  Nascimento AF, Granter SR, Cviko A, et al. Vulvar acanthosis with altered differentiation: a precursor to verrucous carcinoma? Am J Surg Pathol 2004;28:638–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 278  Rubben A, Beaudenon S, Favre M, et al. Rearrangements of the upstream regulatory region of human papillomavirus type 6 can be found in both Buschke–Löwenstein tumours and in condylomata acuminata. J Gen Virol 1992;73:3147–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 279  Kraus FT, Perez‐Mesa C. Verrucous carcinoma: clinical and pathologic study of 105 cases including oral cavity, larynx and genitalia. Cancer 1966;19:26–38. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 280  Mehta RK, Rytina E, Sterling JC. Treatment of verrucous carcinoma of vulva with acitretin. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:1195–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                  Extramammary Paget disease

                  • 281  Wilkinson EJ, Brown HM. Vulvar Paget disease of urothelial origin: a report of three cases and a proposed classification of vulval Paget disease. Hum Pathol 2002;33:549–54. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 282  Preti M, Micheletti L, Massobrio M, et al. Vulvar Paget disease: one century after first reported. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2003;7:122–35. Cross Ref link
                  • 283  Lloyd J, Flanagan AM. Mammary and extra‐mammary Paget's disease. J Clin Pathol 2000;53:742–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 284  Parker L‐P, Parker JR, Bodurka‐Bevers D, et al. Paget's disease of the vulva: pathology, pattern of involvement and prognosis. Gynecol Oncol 2000;77:183–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 285  Brown HM, Wilkinson EJ. Uroplakin‐III to distinguish primary vulvar Paget disease from Paget disease secondary to urothelial carcinoma. Hum Pathol 2002;33:545–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 286  Maclean AB, Makwana M, Ellis PE, Cunnington F. The management of Paget's disease of the vulva. J Obstet Gynecol 2004;24:124–8. Cross Ref link
                  • 287  Delport ES. Extramammary Paget's disease of the vulva: an annotated review of the current literature. Aust J Dermatol 2013;54:9–21. Cross Ref link
                  • 288  Siesling S, Elferink MA, van Dijck JA, et al. Epidemiology and treatment of extramammary Paget's disease in the Netherlands. Eur J Surg Oncol 2007;33:951–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 289  Zollo JD, Zeitouni NC. The Roswell Park Cancer Institute experience with extra‐mammary Paget's disease. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:59–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 290  Hendi A, Brodland DG, Zitelli JA. Extramammary Paget's disease: surgical treatment with Mohs micrographic surgery. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;551:767–73. Cross Ref link
                  • 291  Nardelli AA, Stafinski T, Menon D. Effectiveness of photodynamic therapy for mammary and extramammary Paget's disease: a state of the science review. BMC Dermatol 2011;11:13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 292  Wang LC, Blanchard A, Judge DE, et al. Successful treatment of recurrent extramammary Paget's disease of the vulva with 5% topical imiquimod cream. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003;49:769–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 293  Karam A, Berek JS, Stenson A, et al. HER‐2/neu targeting for recurrent vulvar Paget's disease. A case report and literature review. Gynecol Oncol 2008;111:568–71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                  Basal cell carcinoma

                  • 294  Gibson GE, Ahmed I. Perianal and genital BCC: a clinic‐pathological review of 51 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;45:68–71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 295  De Girogi V, Salvini C, Massi D, Raspollini MR, Carli P. Vulvar basal cell carcinoma: retrospective study and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 2005;97:192–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 296  Mizushima J, Ohara K. Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva with lymph node metastasis: report of a case and review of 20 Japanese cases. J Dermatol 1995;22:36–42. Pubmed link
                  • 297  Benedet JL, Miller DM, Ehlen TG, Bertrand MA. Basal cell carcinoma of the vulva: clinical features and treatment results in 28 patients. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:765–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 298  Brown MD, Zachary CB, Grekin RC, Swanson N. Genital tumors: their management by micrographic surgery. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;18:115–22. Cross Ref link

                  Vulval melanoma

                  • 299  Postow MA, Hamid O, Carvajal RD. Mucosal melanoma: pathogenesis, clinical behaviour and management. Curr Oncol Rep 2012;14:441–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 300  Egan CA, Bradley RR, Logsdon VK, et al. Vulvar melanoma in children. Arch Dermatol 1997;133:345–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 301  Omholt K, Grafstrom E, Kanter‐Lewensohn L, et al. KIT pathway alterations in mucosal melanomas of the vulva and other sites. Clin Cancer Res 2011;15:3933–42. Cross Ref link
                  • 302  Ragnarsson‐Olding BK, Kanter‐Lewensohn LR, Lagerlöf B, et al. Malignant melanoma of the vulva in a nationwide, 25‐year study of 219 Swedish females: clinical observations and pathological features. Cancer 1999;86:1273–84. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 303  Chang AE, Karnell LH, Menck HR. The National Cancer Database report on cutaneous and non‐cutaneous melanoma: a summary of 84,836 cases from the past decade. Cancer 1998;83:1664–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 304  Janco JM, Markovic SN, Weaver AL, Cliby WA. Vulvar and vaginal melanoma: case series and review of current management options including neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Gynecol Oncol 2013;129:533–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                  Langerhans cell histiocytosis

                  • 305  Santillan A. Vulvar Langerhans cell histiocytosis: a case report and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 2003;91:241–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 306  Jiang W, Li L, He Y, Yang K. Langerhans cell histiocytosis of the female genital tract: a literature review with additional thress case studies in China. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2012;285:99–103. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 307  El‐Safadi S, Dreyer T, Oehmke F, Muenstedt K. Management of adult primary vulvae Langerhans cell histiocytosis: review of the literature and a case history. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2012;163:123–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                  Other malignant vulval neoplasms

                  • 308  Willen R, Bekassy D, Carlen B, et al. Cloacogenic adenocarcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1999;74:298–301. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 309  Vang R, Medeiros J, Fuller GN, et al. Non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma involving the gynaecologic tract: a review of 88 cases. Adv Anat Pathol 2001;8:200–17. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 310  Kaplan MA, Jacobson MO, Ferry JA, Harris NL. T‐cell lymphoma of the vulva in a renal allograft recipient with associated hemophagocytosis. Am J Surg Pathol 1993;17:842–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 311  Kaplan EG, Chadburn A, Caputo TA. HIV‐related primary non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1996;61:131–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 312  Koenig C, Tavassoli FA. Nodular hyperplasia adenoma, and adenomyoma of Bartholin's gland. Int J Dermatol 1998;17:289–94.
                  • 313  Argenta PA, Bell K, Reynolds C, Weinstein R. Bartholin's gland hyperplasia in a postmenopausal woman. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:695–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 314  Felix JC, Cote RJ, Kramer EE, et al. Carcinoma of Bartholin's gland: histogenesis and the aetiological role of human papilloma virus. Am J Pathol 1993;142:925–33. Pubmed link
                  • 315  Moodley M, Moodley J. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans of the vulva: case report and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 2000;78:74–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 316  Nucci MR, Fletcher CDM. Liposarcoma (atypical lipomatous tumors) of the vulva: a clinicopathologic study of 6 cases. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1998;17:17–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                  • 317  Tan GW, Lim‐Tan SK, Salmon YM. Epithelioid sarcoma of the vulva. Singapore Med J 1989;30:308–10. Pubmed link
                  • 318  Hierro I, Blanes A, Matilla A, et al. Merkel cell (neuroendocrine) carcinoma of the vulva. A case report with immunohistochemical and ultrastrutcural findings and review of the literature. Pathol Res Prac 2000;196:503–9. Cross Ref link
                  • 319  Calonje EJ, Spiegel GW. Non‐epithelial tumours of the vulva. In: Neill SM, Lewis FM, eds. Ridley's The Vulva, 3rd edn. London: Wiley Blackwell, 2009:203–5.
                  • 320  Dehner IP. Metastatic and secondary tumours of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1973;42:47–57. Pubmed link
                  • 321  Neto AG, Deavers MT, Silva EG, Malpica A. Metastatic tumours of the vulva: a clinicopathologic study of 66 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 2003;27:799–804. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                  Pain disorders

                    Vulval pain

                    • 322  Moyal‐Barracco M, Lynch PJ. 2003 ISSVD terminology and classification of vulvodynia: a historical perspective. J Reprod Med 2004;49:772–7. Pubmed link
                    • 323  Harlow BL, Stewart EG. A population‐based assessment of chronic unexplained vulvar pain: have we underestimated the prevalence of vulvodynia? J Am Med Womens Assoc 2003;58:82–8. Pubmed link
                    • 324  Wu EQ, Biurnbaum H, Mareva M, et al. Interstitial cystitis: cost, treatment and co‐morbidities in an employed population. Pharmacoeconomics 2006;24:55–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                    • 325  Bergeron S, Binik Y, Khalife S, et al. A randomized comparison of group cognitive–behavioural therapy, surface electromyographic biofeedback, and vestibulectomy in the treatment of dyspareunia resulting from vulvar vestibulitis. Pain 2001;91:297–306. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                    • 326  Bohm‐Starke N, Falconer C, Rylander E, Hilliges M. The expression of cyclooxygenase 2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase indicates no active inflammation in vulvar vestibulitis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2001;80:638–44. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                    • 327  Mandal D, Nunns D, Byrne M, et al. Guidelines for the management of vulvodynia. Br J Dermatol 2010;162:1180–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                    • 328  Haefner HK, Collins ME, David GD, et al. The vulvodynia guideline. J Lower Gen Tract Dis 2005;9:40–51. Cross Ref link
                    • 329  Munday P, Buchan A, Ravenhill G, et al. A qualitative study of women with vulvodynia. II. Response to a multidisciplinary approach to management. J Reprod Med 2007;52:19–22. Pubmed link

                    Traumatic lesions

                    • 330  Wise TN, Dietrich AM, Segall E. Female genital self mutilation: case reports and literature review. J Sex Marital Therapy 1989;15:269–74. Cross Ref link
                    • 331  Neill SM, Lewis FM. Traumatic lesions In: Neill SM, Lewis FM, eds. Ridley's The Vulva, 3rd edn. London: Wiley Blackwell, 2009:131. Cross Ref link
                    • 332  Kempson, RL, Sherman AI. Sclerosing lipogranuloma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968;101:854–6. Pubmed link

                    Female genital mutilation

                    • 333  Simpson J, Robinson K, Crieghton SM, Hodes D. Female genital mutilation: the role of health professionals in prevention assessment and management. BMJ 2012;344:37–41.

                    Miscellaneous

                      Graft‐versus‐host disease

                      • 334  Zantomio D, Grigg AP, MacGregor L, et al. Female genital tract graft versus host disease:incidence, risk factors and recommendations for management. Bone Marrow Transplant 2006;38:567–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 335  Hirsch P, Leclerc M, Rybojad M, et al. Female genital chronic graft‐versus‐host disease: importance of early diagnosis to avoid severe complications. Transplantation 2012;93:1265–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 336  Stratton P, Turner ML, Childs R, et al. Vulvovaginal graft versus host disease with allogeneic haemopoetic stem cell transplantation. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:1041–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 337  Dignan F, Clark A, Amrolia P, et al. Diagnosis and management of acute graft‐versus‐host disease. Br J Haematol 2012;158:30–45. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 338  Spiryda LB, Laufer MR, Soiffer RJ, et al. Graft versus host disease of the vulva and/or vagina: diagnosis and treatment. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2003;9:760–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                      Vulvo‐vaginal adenosis

                      • 339  Yaghsezian H, Palazzo JP, Finkel GC, et al. Primary vaginal adenocarcinoma of the intestinal type associated with adenosis. Gynecol Oncol 1992;45:62–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                      Necrolytic migratory erythema

                      • 340  Nakashima H, Komina M, Sasaki K, et al. Necrolytic migratory erythema without glucagonoma in a patient with short bowel syndrome. J Dermatol 2006;33:557–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 341  Mullans EA, Cohen PR. Iatrogenic necrolytic migratory erythema: a case report and review of nonglucagonoma‐associated necrolytic migratory erythema. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:866–73. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

                      Genital papular acantholytic dyskeratosis

                      • 342  Chorzelski TP, Kudejko J, Jablonska S. Is papular acantholytic dyskeratosis of the vulva a new entity? Am J Dermatopathol 1984;6:557–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 343  Cooper PH. Acantholytic dermatosis localized to the vulvocrural area. J Cutan Pathol 1989;16:81–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 344  Lee SH, Jang JG. Papular acantholytic dyskeratosis of the genitalia. J Dermatol 1989;16:312–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 345  Pestereli HE, Karaveli S, Oztekin S, Zorlu G. Benign persistent acantholytic and dyskeratotic eruption of the vulva: a case report. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2000;19:374–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 346  Bell HK, Farrar CW, Curley RK. Papular acantholytic dyskeratosis of the vulva. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:386–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 347  Ciupinska M, Kalbarczyk K, Jablonska S. Disseminated papular acantholytic dyskeratosis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1998;11:55–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 348  Güneş AT, Ilknur T, Pabuççuoglu U, et al. Papular acantholytic dyskeratosis of the anogenital area with positive direct immunofluorescence results. Clin Exp Dermatol 2007;32:301–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
                      • 349  Dittmer CJ, Hornemann A, Rose CJ, et al. Successful laser therapy in a papular dyskeratosis of the vulva: case report and review of the literature. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2010;281:723–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link