Introduction

  • 1  Standring S, ed. in chief. Grays Anatomy. The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 40th edn. London: Churchill Livingston, Elsevier, 2008.
  • 2  Solan P, Davis B. Anorectal anatomy and imaging techniques. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2013;42:701–12. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 3  Lunsman H, Roberston E. Evolution of the pelvic floor. In: Thomas Benson JT, ed. Female Pelvic Floor Disorders. New York: Norton Medical Books, 1992:3–18.
  • 4  Girard C, Bigorre M, Guillot B, et al. PELVIS syndrome. Arch Dermatol 2006;142:884‐8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 5  Su W, Louback J, Gagne E, et al. Chordoma cutis: a report of nineteen patients with cutaneous involvement of chordoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;29:63–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 6  Mevorah B, Goldberg I, Sprecher E, et al. Olmsted syndrome: mutilating palmoplantar keratoderma with periorificial keratotic plaques. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;53:S266–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 7  Balci D, Yenin J, Celik E, et al. Inflammatory linear verrucous nevus with genital involvement. Skinmed 2012;10:112–13. Pubmed link
  • 8  Boralevi F, Haftek M, Vabres P, et al. Hereditary mucoepithelial dysplasia: clinical, ultrastructural and genetic study of eight patients and literature review. Br J Dermatol 2005;153:310–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 9  Snell RS. Clinical Anatomy by Region, 9e. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins/Wolters Kluwer, 2012.

Perianal itching

    Pruritus ani

    • 10  Metcalf A. Anorectal disorders. Five common causes of pain, itching and bleeding. Postgrad Med 1995;98:81–5, 87–9, 92–4. Pubmed link
    • 11  Markell KW, Billingham R. Pruritus ani: etiology and management. Surg Clin North Am 2010;90(1):125–35. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 12  Harrington C, Lewis F, McDonagh A, et al. Dermatological causes of pruritus ani. BMJ 1992;305:955. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 13  Londov M, Opstrup M, Johansen J. Methylisothiazolinone contact allergy – a growing epidemic. Contact Dermatitis 2013;69:271–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 14  Laurent A, Boucharlat J, Bosson J, et al. Psychological assessment of patients with idiopathic pruritus ani. Psychother Psychosom 1997;66:163–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 15  Oztas M, Oztas P, Onder M. Idiopathic perianal pruritus: washing compared with topical steroids. Postgrad Med J 2014;80:295–7. Cross Ref link
    • 16  Al‐Ghnaniem R, Short K, Pullen, et al. 1% hydrocortisone ointment is an effective treatment of pruritus ani: a pilot study randomized controlled crossover trial. Int J Colorectal Dis 2007;22:1463–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 17  Lysy J, Sistiery‐Ittah M, Israelit Y, et al. Topical capsaicin: a novel and effective treatment for idiopathic intractable pruritus ani: a randomized, placebo controlled crossover study. Gut 2003;52:1323–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 18  Suys E. Randomized study of topical tacrolimus ointment as a possible treatment for resistant idiopathic pruritus ani. J Am Acad Dermatol 2012;66:327–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 19  Samalavicius N, Poskus T, Gupta R, et al. Long‐term results of single intradermal 1% methylene blue injection for intractable idiopathic pruritus ani: a prospective study. Tech Coloproctol 2012;16:295–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Inflammatory dermatoses

    • 20  Bauer A, Oehme S, Geier J. Contact sensitization in the anal and genital area. Curr Probl Dermatol 2011;40:133–41. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 21  Gonzalez‐Perez R, Sanchez‐Martinez L, Piqueres Z, et al. Patch testing in patients with perianal eczema. Actas Dermosifiliogr 2014;105:694–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 22  Bunker C, Edmonds E, Hawkins D, et al. Re: Lichen sclerosus: review of the literature and current recommendations for management. [Comment on Pugliese J, et al. J Urol 2007;178:2268–76.] J Urol 2009;181:1802–3. Cross Ref link
    • 23  Shim T, Andrich D, Mundy A et al. Lichen sclerosus associated with perineal urethrostomy. Br J Dermatol 2014;170:222–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 24  Faria D, Shwayder T, Krull E. Perineal skin injury: extrinsic environmental factors. Ostomy Wound Manage 1996;42:28–37. Pubmed link

    Other diseases and infections

      Folliculitis and furunculosis

      • 25  Nervi S, Schwartz R, Dmochowski M. Eosinophilic pustular folliculitis: a 40 year retrospect. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;55:285–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 26  Demos M, McLeod M, Nouri K. Recurrent furunculosis: a review of the literature. Br J Dermatol 2012;167:725–32. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 27  Weijmer M, Neering H, Welten C. Preliminary report: furunculosis and hypoferraemia. Lancet 1990;336:464–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Other bacterial infections

      • 28  Sheth S, Schechtman A. Itchy perianal erythema. J Fam Pract 2007;56:1025–7. Pubmed link
      • 29  Neri I, Bardazzi F, Maraduri S, et al. Perianal streptococcal dermatitis in adults. Br J Dermatol 1996;135:796–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 30  Ledoux M, Chazerain V, Saiag P, et al. Streptococcal perianal dermatitis and guttate psoriasis. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2009;136:37–41. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 31  Bunker C. Male Genital Skin Disease. London: Saunders, 2004.
      • 32  Sultan H, Boyle A, Sheppard N. Necrotising fasciitis. BMJ 2012;345:43–5. Cross Ref link

      Viral infections

      • 33  Friter B, Lucky A. The perineal eruption of Kawasaki syndrome. Arch Dermatol 1988;124:1805–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Helminth infections

      • 34  Valerio L, Roure S, Fernandes‐Rivas G, et al. Strongyloides stercoralis, the hidden worm. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 70 cases diagnosed in the North Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, Spain 2003–2012. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2013;107:465–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 35  Greaves D, Coggle S, Pollard C, et al. Strongyloides stercoralis infection. BMJ 2013;347:30–33.

      Miscellaneous infections

      • 36  Venkataramaiah N, Reinaerta H, Van Roalte J, et al. Pseudomalignant cutaneous amoebiasis. Trop Doctor 1982;12:162–3.

      Sexually transmitted diseases

      • 37  Singhrao T, Higham E, French P. Lymphogranuloma venereum presenting as perianal ulceration: an emerging clinical presentation? Sex Transm Infect 2011;87:123–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 38  Ronn M, Ward H. The association between lymphogranuloma venereum and HIV among men who have sex with men: systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2011;11:70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 39  Bissessor M, Fairley C, Read T, et al. The aetiology of infectious proctitis in men who have sex with men differs according to HIV status. Sex Transm Dis 2013;40:768–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Human immunodeficiency virus infection

      • 40  Barrett W, Callahan T, Orkin B. Perianal manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus infection: experience with 260 patients. Dis Colon Rectum 1998;41:606–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 41  Piketty C, Selinger‐Leneman H, Grabar S, et al. Marked increase in the incidence of invasive anal cancer among HIV infected patients despite treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2008;21:1203–11. Cross Ref link
      • 42  Yuhan R, Orsay C, Del Pino A, et al. Anorectal disease in HIV‐infected patients. Dis Colon Rectum 1998;41:1367–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 43  Hayes R, Schula K, Plummer F. The cofactor effect of genital ulcers on the per‐exposure risk of HIV transmission in sub‐Saharan Africa. J Trop Med Hyg 1995;98:1–8. Pubmed link
      • 44  Tobian A, Grabowski M, Serwadda D, et al. Reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 2 after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2013;208:839–46. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Human papillomavirus infection

      • 45  Garland S. Human papillomavirus update with a particular focus on cervical disease. Pathology 2002;34:213–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 46  Giuliana A, Nyitray A, Kreimer A, et al. EUROGIN 2014 roadmap: differences in human papillomavirus infection, natural history, transmission and human papillomavirus‐related cancer incidence by gender and anatomic site of infection. Int J Cancer 2014, doi: 10.1002/ijc.29082.
      • 47  Glick S, Feng Q, Popov V, et al. High rates of incident and prevalent anal human papillomavirus infection among young men who have sex with men. J Infect Dis 2014;209:369–76. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 48  Stanley M. Epithelial cell responses to infection with human papillomavirus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012;25:215–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 49  Hawkins M, Winder D, Ball S, et al. Detection of specific HPV subtypes responsible for the pathogenesis of condylomata acuminata. Virol J 2013;10:137. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 50  Armstrong D, Handley J. Anogenital warts in prepubertal children: pathogenesis, HPV typing and management. Int J STD AIDS 1997;8:78–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 51  Chin‐Hong P, Berry J, Cheng S, et al. Comparison of patient and clinician collected anal cytology samples to screen for human papilloma associated anal intraepithelial neoplasia in men who have sex with men. Ann Intern Med 2008;149:300–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 52  Garland S. The Australian experience with the human papillomavirus vaccine. Clin Ther 2014;36:17–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 53  Giuliano A, Palefsky J, Goldstone S, et al. Efficacy of quadrivalent HPV vaccine against HPV infection and disease in males. N Engl J Med 2011;364:401–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 54  Stanley M. HPV vaccination in boys and men. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2014;10. [Epub ahead of print] Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 55  Yang J, Pu YG, Zeng ZM, Yu ZJ, Huang N, Deng QW. Interferon for the treatment of genital warts: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2009;9:156. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Anal intraepithelial neoplasia

      • 56  Pineda C, Berry M, Jay N, et al. High‐resolution anoscopy targeted surgical destruction of anal high grade squamous intra‐epithelial lesions: a ten year experience. Dis Colon Rectum 2008;51:829–35. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 57  Stanley M, Winder D, Sterling J, et al. HPV infection, anal‐intraepithelail neoplasia (AIN) and anal cancer: current issues. BMC Cancer 2012;12:398. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 58  Sahai A, Kodner I. Premalignant neoplasms and squamous cell carcinoma of the anal margin. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2006;19:88–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 59  Scholefield J, Harris D, Radcliffe A. Guidelines for management of anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Colorectal Dis 2011;13:3–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 60  Wieland U, Kreuter A. One step towards standardized management of anal dysplasia. Lancet Oncol 2013;14:273–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 61  Richel O, Wieland U, De Vries H, et al. Topical 5‐fluorouracil treatment of anal intraepithelial neoplasia in human immunodeficiency virus‐positive men. Br J Dermatol 2010;163:1301–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 62  Smyczek P, Singh A, Romanowski B. Anal intraepithelial neoplasia: review and recommendations for screening and management. Int J STD AIDS 2013;24:843–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 63  Palefsky J, Giuliano A, Goldstone S, et al. HPV vaccine against anal HPV infection and anal intraepithelial neoplasia. N Eng J Med 2011;365:1576–85. Cross Ref link

      Anal and perianal malignancy

      • 64  Ryan D, Mayer R. Anal carcinoma: histology, staging, epidemiology, treatment. Curr Opin Oncol 2000;12:345–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 65  Anwar S, Welbourne H, Hill J, et al. Adenocarcinoma of the anal canal – a systematic review. Colorectal Dis 2013;15:1481–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 66  Brewster D, Bhatti L. Increasing incidence of squamous cell carcinoma of the anus in Scotland, 1975–2002. Br J Cancer 2006;95:87–90. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 67  Barroso L. The role of human papilloma vaccination in the prevention of anal cancer in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus‐1 infection. Ther Adv Vaccines 2013;1:81–92. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 68  Stanley M, Winder D, Sterling J, et al. HPV infection, anal‐intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) and anal cancer: current issues. BMC Cancer 2012;12:398–91. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 69  Sunesen K, Norgaard M, Thorlacius‐Ussing O et al. Immunosuppressive disorders and risk of anal squamous cell carcinoma: a nationwide cohort study in Denmark, 1978–2005. Int J Cancer 2009;127:675–84. Cross Ref link
      • 70  Chiao E, Hartman C, El‐Serag H, et al. The impact of HIV viral control on the incidence of HIV‐associated anal cancer. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013;63:631–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 71  Hillman R, Garland S, Gunathilake M, et al. Human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes in an Australian sample of anal cancers. Int J Cancer 2014;135:996–1001. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 72  Newlin H, Zlotecki R, Morris C, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the anal margin. J Surg Oncol 2004;86:55–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 73  Glynne‐Jones R, Nilsson P, Aschele C, et al. Anal cancer: ESMO‐ESSO‐ESTRO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow‐up. Radiother Oncol 2014;111:330–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 74  Sobin L, Gospodarowicz M, Wittekind C, International Union Against Cancer. TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours. Anal Canal, 7th edn. Oxford: Wiley‐Blackwell, 2009:106–9.
      • 75  National Cancer Institute. SEER Statistics Fact Sheets: Anal Cancer, 2013. http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/anus.html (last accessed December 2014).
      • 76  Fraunholz I, Haberi A, Klauke S, et al. Long‐term effects of chemoradiotherapy for anal cancer in patients with HIV infection: oncological outcomes, immunological status, and the clinical course of the HIV disease. Dis Colon Rectum 2014;57:423–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Miscellaneous malignancies

      • 77  Lloyd J, Flanagan A. Mammary and extramammary Paget's disease. J Clin Pathol 2000;53:742–49. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 78  Sahai A, Kodner I. Premalignant neoplasms and squamous cell carcinoma of the anal margin. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2006;19:88–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 79  Perez D, Trakarnsanga A, Shia J, et al. Management and outcome of perianal Paget's disease; a 6 decade institutional experience. Dis Colon Rectum 2014;57:747–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 80  Wietfeldt E, Thiele J. Malignancies of the anal margin and perianal skin. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2009;22:127–36. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 81  Ng C. Carcinoma erysipeloides from prostate cancer presenting as cellulitis. Cutis 2000;65:215–16. Pubmed link

      Hidradenitis suppurativa

      • 82  Jemec G, Heidenheim M, Nielsen N. The prevalence of hidradenitis suppurativa and its potential precursor lesions. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996;39:971–4. Cross Ref link
      • 83  Vazquez B, Alikhan A, Weaver A, et al. Incidence of hidradenitis suppurativa and associated factors: a population‐based study of Olmsted County, Minnesota. J Invest Dermatol 2013;133:97–103. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 84  Paletta C, Juriewicz M. Hidradenitis suppuritiva. Clin Plast Surg 1987;14:383–90. Pubmed link
      • 85  Schrader A, Deckers I, Van der Zee H, et al. Hidradenitis suppurativa: a retrospective study of 846 Dutch patients to identify factors associated with disease severity. J Am Acad Dermatol 2014;71:460–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 86  Hurley H. Axillary hyperhidrosis, apocrine bromohidrosis, hidradenitis suppurativa and familial benign pemphigus: surgical approach. In: Roenigk R, Roenigk H, eds. Dermatologic Surgery. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989: 729–39.
      • 87  Alharbi Z, Kauczok J, Pallua N. A review of wide surgical excision of hidradenitis suppurativa. BMC Dermatol 2012;12:9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 88  Blok J, van Hattem S, JonkMan M, et al. Systemic therapy with immunosuppressive agents and retinoids in hidradenitis suppurativa: a systemic review. Br J Dermatol 2013;168:243–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Pilonidal sinus

      • 89  Sondenaa K, Andersen E, Nesvik I, et al. Patient characteristics and symptoms in chronic pilonidal sinus disease. Int J Colorectal Dis 1995;10:39–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 90  Khanna A, Rombeau J. Pilonidal disease. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2011;24:46–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 91  Chintapatla S, Safarani N, Kumar S, et al. Sacrococcygeal pilonidal sinus: historical review, pathological insight and surgical options. Tech Coloproctol 2003;7:3–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Crohn disease

      • 92  Lester L, Rapini R. Dermatological manifestations of colonic disorders. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2009;25:66–73. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 93  Burri E, Vavricka S. Perianal Crohn's disease. Ther Umsch 2013;70:417–28. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 94  Nielsen O, Rogler G, Hahnloser D, et al. Diagnosis and management of fistulising Crohn's disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;6:92–106. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 95  Molendiik I, Peeters K, Baeten C, et al. Improving the outcome of fistulising Crohn's disease. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2014;28:505–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 96  Rubin D, Panaccione R, Chao J, et al. A practical evidence based guide to the use of adalimumab in Crohn's disease. Curr Med Res Opin 2011;9;1803–13. Cross Ref link
      • 97  Taxonera C, Schwartz D, Garcia‐Olmo D. Emerging treatments for complex perianal fistula in Crohn's disease. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:4263–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Anal abscess

      • 98  Sneider E, Maykel J. Anal abscess and fistula. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2013;42:773–84. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 99  Malik A, Nelson R, Tou S. Incision and drainage of perianal abscess with or without treatment of anal fistula. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;Issue 7:CD006827. Pubmed link
      • 100  Sozener U, Gedik E, Aslar A, et al. Does adjuvant antibiotic treatment after drainage of anorectal abscess prevent development of anal fistulas? A randomized, placebo controlled, double blind, multicentre study. Dis Colon Rectum 2011;54:923–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Anal fistula

      • 101  Zanotti C, Martinez‐Puente C, Pascual I, et al. An assessment of the incidence of fistula‐in‐ano in four countries of the European Union. Int J Colorectal Dis 2007;22:1459–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 102  Simpson JA, Banerjea A, Scholefield JH. Management of anal fistula. BMJ 2012;345:36–41. Cross Ref link
      • 103  Parks A, Gordon P, Hardcastle J. A classification of fistula‐in‐ano. Br J Surg 1976;63:1–12. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 104  Malik A, Nelson R, Tou S. Incision and drainage of perianal abscess with or without treatment of anal fistula. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;Issue 7:CD006827. Pubmed link
      • 105  Nielsen O, Rogler G, Hahnloser D, et al. Diagnosis and management of fistulising Crohn's disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;6:92–106. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 106  Halligan S, Stoker J. Imaging of fistula‐in‐ano. Radiology 2006;239:18–33. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 107  Sileri P, Cadeddu F, D'Ugo S, et al. Surgery for fistula‐in‐ano in a specialist colorectal unit: a critical appraisal. BMC Gastroenterol 2011;11:120. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Anal fissure

      • 108  Lock M, Thomson J. Fissure‐in‐ano: the initial management and prognosis. Br J Surg 1977;64:355–58. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 109  Shawki S, Costedio M. Anal fissure and anal stenosis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2013;42:729–58. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 110  Sailer M, Bussen D, Debus E, et al. Quality of life in patients with benign anorectal disorders. Br J Surg 1998;85:1716–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 111  Schubert M, Sridhar S, Schahe R, et al. What every gastroenterologist needs to know about common anorectal disorders. World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:3201–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Haemorrhoids

      • 112  Loder P, Kamm M, Nicholls R, et al. Haemorrhoids: pathology, pathophysiology and aetiology. Br J Surg 1994;81:946–54. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 113  Hass P, Fox T. Age‐related changes and scar formations of perianal connective tissue. Dis Colon Rectum 1980;23:160–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 114  Hall J. Modern management of haemorrhoidal disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2013;42:759–72.
      • 115  Snell RS. Clinical Anatomy by Region, 9e. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins/Wolters Kluwer, 2012.

      Trauma and artefact

      • 116  Vanderwee K, Clark M, Dealey C, et al. Pressure ulcer prevalence in Europe: a pilot study. J Eval Clin Pract 2007;13:227–35. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 117  Stansby G, Avital L, Jones K, et al. Prevention and management of pressure ulcers in primary and secondary care: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ 2014;348:31–4. Cross Ref link
      • 118  Muram D. Anal and perianal abnormalities in prepubertal victims of sexual abuse. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1989;161:278–81. Cross Ref link
      • 119  Sultan A, Kettle C. Diagnosis of perineal trauma. In: Sultan A, Thakar R, Fenner D, eds. Perineal and Anal Sphincter Trauma. Diagnosis and Clinical Management. London: Springer‐Verlag, 2009: 7–13.
      • 120  Sultan A. Obstetric perineal injury and anal incontinence. Clin Risk 1999;5:193–6.

      Perineal and perianal pain

      • 121  Andromanakos N, Kouraklis G, AlkiviAdis K. Chronic perineal pain: current pathophysiological aspects, diagnostic approaches and treatment. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;23:2–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 122  Bharucha A, Wald A, Enck P, et al. Functional anorectal disorders. Gastroenterology 2006;130:1510–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 123  Boyce P, Talley N, Burke C, et al. Epidemiology of the functional gastrointestinal disorders diagnosed according to Rome II criteria: an Australian population based study. Intern Med J 2006;36:28–36. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 124  Ng C. Levator ani syndrome; a case study and literature review. Aust Fam Phy 2007;36:449–51.
      • 125  Gavriilidis P, Kyriakou D. Sacrococcygeal chordoma; a rare cause of coccygodynia. Am J Case Rep 2013;14:548–50. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 126  Harewood G, Coulie B, Camilleri M, et al. Descending perineum syndrome: audit of clinical and laboratory features and outcome of pelvic floor retraining. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:126–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 127  Haddad B, Prasad V, Khan W, et al. Favourable outcomes of coccygectomy for refractory coccygodynia. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2014;96:136–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link