Introduction

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Staphylococcus aureus

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  • 57  Kluytmans J, van Belkum A, Verbrugh H. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: Epidemiology, underlying mechanisms and associated risks. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:50520. Pubmed link
  • 58  Schubert O. Studien über pathogene Staphylokokken in Südosteuropäischen und mediterranen geographischen Einheiten. Z Hyg Infect Krankh 1951;132:46576. Cross Ref link
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  • 60  Bibel DJ, Aly R, Shinefield HR, et al. Importance of the keratinized epithelial cell in bacterial adherence. J Invest Dermatol 1982;79:2503. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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  • 67  Noble WC, Naidoo J. Evolution of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: the role of the skin. Br J Dermatol 1978;98:4819. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 68  Simor AE, Stuart TL, Louie L, et al. Mupirocin‐resistant, methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains in Canadian hospitals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:38806. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 69  Sule O, Brown NM, Willocks LJ, et al. Fusidic acid‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (FRSA) carriage in patients with atopic eczema and pattern of prior topical fusidic acid use. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007;30:7882. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 70  Cohen PR. Community‐acquired methicillin‐resistant Staphyloccocus aureus skin infections: a review of epidemiology, clinical features, management and prevention. Int J Dermatol 2007;46:111. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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  • 75  Hidron AI, Kourbatova E, Halvosa JS, et al. Risk factors for colonisation with methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients admitted to an urban hospital: Emergence of community‐associated MRSA nasal carriage. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:15966. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 76  Elston DM. Community‐acquired methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007;56:116. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 77  Takizawa Y, Teneike I, Nakagawa S, et al. A Panton‐Valentine leukocidin (PVL)‐positive community‐acquired methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain, another such strain carrying a multiple‐drug resistance plasmid, and other more typical PVL‐negative MRSA strains found in Japan. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:335663. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 78  Grumann D, Nubel U, Broker BM. Staphylococcus aureus toxins – Their functions and genetics. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. Oxford: Elsevier, 2013.
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Coagulase‐negative staphylococci

  • 81  Chiller K, Selkin BA, Murakawa G. Skin microflora and bacterial infections of the skin. J Invest Dermatol Symp Proc 2001;6:1704. Cross Ref link
  • 82  Gemmell CG. Coagulase‐negative staphylococci. J Med Microbiol 1986;22:28595. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 83  Van Eldere J, Peetermans WE, Struelens M, et al. Polyclonal staphylococcal endocarditis caused by genetic variability. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:2430. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 84  Pitlik S, Fainstein V. Cellulitis caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis in a patient with leukemia. Arch Dermatol 1984;120:1099100. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Streptococci

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  • 109  Filleron A, Lombard F, Jacquot A, et al. Group B streptococci in milk and late neonatal infections: an analysis of cases in the literature. Arch Dis Fetel Neonatal Ed 2014;99(1):F417.
  • 110  Schleftel J‐M, Laplanche G, Freydiere M‐H, et al. Étude de la determination simultanée des antistreptolysines O et des antistreptodornase B au cours des infections streptococciques cutanées. Ann Dermatol Vénéréol 1982;109:10316. Pubmed link
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  • 112  Hashikawa S, Iinuma Y, Furushita M, et al. Characterisation of Group C and G streptococcal strains that cause streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:18692. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Staphylococcal and streptococcal infections

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  • 116  Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res 2012;22(5):8509. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 117  Hanifin JM, Lobitz WC. Newer concepts of atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1977;113:66370. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 118  Broberg A, Faergemann J. Infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis and Pityrosporum ovale. Br J Dermatol 1989;120:35962. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 119  Jappe U. Superantigens and their association with dermatological inflammatory disease: facts and hypotheses. Acta Derm Venereol 2000;80:3218. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 120  Miraglia del Giudice M, Decimo F, Leonardi S, et al. Immune dysregulation in atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Proc 2006;27:4515. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 121  Pivarcsi A, Gombert M, Dieu‐Nosjean MC, et al. Chemokine Ligand 18 an atopic dermatitis‐associated and dendritic cell‐derived chemokine, is regulated by staphylococcal products and allergen exposure. J Immunol 2004;173:581017. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Impetigo

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  • 125  Cruikshank JG, Lightfoot NF, Sugars KH, et al. A large outbreak of streptococcal pyoderma in a military training establishment. J Hyg 1982;89:921. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 126  Feldmeier H, Chhatwal GS, Guerra H. Pyoderma, group A streptococci and parasitic skin diseases – a dangerous relationship. Trop Med Int Health 2005;10:71316. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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  • 128  Van Toorn MJ. On the staphylococcal and streptococcal etiology of impetigo. Dermatologica 1961;123:3919. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 129  Helgren L, Hersle K. Impetigo contagiosa. Statistical evaluation of clinical and laboratory data in 3167 patients and matched healthy controls. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1964;44:35661.
  • 130  Lissauer TJ, Sanderson PJ, Valman HB. Re‐emergence of bullous impetigo. BMJ 1981;283:150910. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 131  Bisno AL, Stevens DL. Streptococcal infections of skin and soft tissues. N Engl J Med 1996;334:2405. Cross Ref link
  • 132  Berrios X, Lagomarsino E, Solar E, et al. Post‐streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis in Chile – 20 years experience. Pediatric Nephrol 2004;19:30612. Cross Ref link
  • 133  White A, Hoy WE, McCredie DA. Childhood post‐streptococcal glomerulonephritis is a risk factor for chronic renal disease in later life. Med J Aust 2001;174:4926.
  • 134  Ladhani S. Understanding the mechanism of action of the exfoliative toxins of Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Immunol Med Micro 2003;39:1819. Cross Ref link
  • 135  Wannamaker LW. Differences between streptococcal infections of the throat and of the skin. N Engl J Med 1970;282:2331. Cross Ref link
  • 136  Dajani AS, Ferrieri P, Wannamaker LW. Natural history of impetigo II. Etiologic agents and bacterial interactions. J Clin Invest 1972;51:286371. Cross Ref link
  • 137  El Tayeb SHM, Nasr EMM, Attallah AS. Streptococcal impetigo and acute glomerulonephritis in children in Cairo. Br J Dermatol 1978;98:5361. Cross Ref link
  • 138  Connor BL. Impetigo contagiosa in the United Kingdom. Br J Dermatol 1972;86 (Suppl. 8):4854. Cross Ref link
  • 139  Melish ME, Glasgow LA. The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. N Engl J Med 1970;282:111419. Cross Ref link
  • 140  Amagai M, Matsuyoushi N, Wang ZH, et al. Toxin in bullous impetigo and staphylococcal scalded‐skin syndrome targets desmoglein 1. Nature Med 2000;6:12757. Cross Ref link
  • 141  Monday SR, Vath GM, Ferens WA, et al. Unique superantigen activity of staphylococcal exfoliative toxins. J Immunol 1999;162:45509. Pubmed link
  • 142  Ginsburg CM. Staphylococcal toxin syndromes. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10:31921. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 143  Kato F, Kadomoto N, Iwamoto Y, et al. Regulatory mechanisms for exfoliative toxin production in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2011;79(4):166070. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 144  Dajani AS, Ferrieri P, Wannamaker LW. Endemic superficial pyoderma in children. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:51722. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 145  Koning S, Van der Sande R, Verhagen AP, et al. Interventions for impetigo. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;1:CD003261. Pubmed link
  • 146  Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft‐tissue infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1373406. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 147  Koning S, van Suijlekom‐Smit LW, Nouwen J, et al. Fusidic acid cream in the treatment of impetigo in general practice: double blind randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2002;324:2037. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 148  Luby S, Agboatwalla M, Feikin D, et al. Effect of hand washing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366:22533. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Ecthyma

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  • 150  Sharma S, Verma KK. Skin and soft tissue infection. Indian J Pediatr 2001;68(Suppl. 3):S4650. Pubmed link
  • 151  Nolting S, Strauss WB. Treatment of impetigo and ecthyma. A comparison of sulconazole with miconazole. Int J Dermatol 1988;27:71619. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Cellulitis and erysipelas

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Folliculitis

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Furuncle (boil, abscess)

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Carbuncle

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Sycosis

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Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

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Toxic shock syndrome

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Recurrent toxin‐mediated perineal erythema

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Streptococcal vulvovaginitis

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Perianal streptococcal cellulitis

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Blistering distal dactylitis

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Toxin‐mediated streptococcal disease

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Streptococcal toxic shock‐like syndrome

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Coryneform bacteria

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Diphtheria

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Erythrasma

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Trichomycosis axillaris

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Pitted keratolysis

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Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection

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Trueperella pyogenes infection

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Propionibacteria

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Bacillus

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Anthrax

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Listeria monocytogenes

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Erysipelothrix rusiopathiae

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Clostridium

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Neisseria meningitides

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Acinetobacter

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Moraxella

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Pseudomonas aeruginosa

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Burkholderia

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Glanders

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Stenotrophomonas maltophilia

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Rhinoscleroma

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Francisella tularensis

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Pasteurella multocida and related infections

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  • 456  Goldstein EJC. Bite wounds and infection. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:63340. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Yersinia

  • 457  Parkhill J, Wren BW, Thomson NR, et al. Genome sequence of Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. Nature 2001;413:5237. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 458  Boisier P, Rahalison L, Rasolomaharo M, et al. Epidemiologic features of four successive annual outbreaks of bubonic plague in Mahajanga, Madagascar. Emerging Infect Dis 2002;8:31116. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 459  Butler T. Plague gives surprises in the first decade of the 21st century in the United States and worldwide. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013;89:78893. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 460  Butler T. Yersinia infections. Centennial of the discovery of the plague bacillus. Clin Infect Dis 1994;19:65563. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 461  Welty TK, Grabman J, Kompare E, et al. Nineteen cases of plague in Arizona. A spectrum including ecthyma gangrenosum due to plague and plague in pregnancy. West J Med 1985;142:6416. Pubmed link
  • 462  Crook LD, Tempest B. Plague. A clinical review of 27 cases. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:12536. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Yersinia enterocolitica

  • 463  van der Heijden IM, Res PCM, Wilbrink B, et al. Yersinia enterocolitica: a cause of chronic polyarthritis. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:8317. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Brucellosis

  • 464  Gee‐Lew BH, Nicholas EA, Hirose FM, et al. Unusual skin manifestations of brucellosis. Arch Dermatol 1983;119:568. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 465  Lulu AR, Araj GF, Khateeb MI. Human brucellosis in Kuwait. A prospective study of 400 cases. Q J Med 1988;249:3954.
  • 466  Ariza J, Servitje O, Pallares R, et al. Characteristic cutaneous lesions in patients with brucellosis. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:3803. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 467  Milionis H, Christou L, Elisaf M. Cutaneous manifestations in brucellosis: case report and review of the literature. Infection 2000;28:1246. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 468  Franco Vicario R, Balparda J, Santamaria JM. Cutaneous vasculitis in a patient with brucellosis. Dermatologica 1985;171:1268. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 469  Karaali Z, Baysal B, Poturoglu S, et al. Cutaneous manifestations in brucellosis. Indian J Dermatol 2011;56:33940. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 470  Morata P, Queipo‐Ortuno MI, Reguera JM, et al. Diagnostic yield of a PCR based assay in focal complications of brucellosis. J Clin Microbiol 2001;39:37436. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 471  Solera J, Martinez‐Alfaro E, Espinoza A. Recognition and optimal treatment of brucellosis. Drugs 1997;53:24556. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Bartonella

  • 472  Relman DA, Lepp PW, Sadler KN, et al. Phylogenetic relationships among the agent of bacillary angiomatosis, Bartonella bacilliformis and other alpha‐­proteobacteria. Mol Microbiol 1992;6:18017. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 473  Vinson JW. In vitro cultivation of the rickettsial agent of trench fever. Bull World Health Org 1996;35:15564.
  • 474  Koehler JE, Glaser CA, Tappero JW. Rochalimea henselae infection with the domestic cat as reservoir. JAMA 1994;271:5315. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 475  Dolan MJ, Wong MT, Regnery RL, et al. Syndrome of Rochalimea henselae suggesting cat scratch disease. Ann Intern Med 1993;118:3316. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 476  Zangwill KM. Cat scratch disease and other Bartonella infections. Adv Exp Med Biol 2013;764:15966. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 477  Carithers HA. Cat scratch disease. An overview based on a study of 1200 patients. Am J Dis Child 1985;139:112433. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 478  Johnson WT, Helwig EB. Cat‐scratch disease: histopathologic changes in the skin. Arch Dermatol 1969;100:14854. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 479  Margileth AM, Wear DJ, English CK. Systemic cat scratch disease. Report of 23 patients with prolonged or recurrent severe bacterial infection. J Infect Dis 1987;155:390402. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 480  Loftus MJ, Sweeney G, Goldberg MH. Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome and cat scratch fever. J Oral Surg 1980;38:21820. Pubmed link
  • 481  Miller P, Bell WE. Cat scratch disease with encephalopathy. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1980;19:2334. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 482  Pickerill RG, Milder JE. Transverse myelitis associated with cat scratch disease in an adult. JAMA 1981;246:28401. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 483  Selby G, Walker GL. Cerebral arteritis in cat scratch disease. Neurology 1979;29:141318. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 484  Zeaiter Z, Fournier PE, Greub G, Raoult D. Diagnosis of Bartonella endocarditis by real time nested PCR using serum. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:91925. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 485  Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, et al. Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species. Antimcrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:192133. Cross Ref link
  • 486  Psarros G, Riddell J 4th, Gandhi T,et al. Bartonella henselae infections in solid organ transplant recipients: report of 5 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2012;91:11121. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 487  Koehler JE, Quinn FD, Berger TG, et al. Isolation of Rochalimea henselae from cutaneous and osseus lesions of bacillary angiomatosis. N Engl J Med 1992;327:162532. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 488  Cockerell CJ, LeBoit PE. Bacillary angiomatosis; a newly characterised pseudoneoplastic infectious, cutaneous vascular disorder. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:50112. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 489  Jensen WA, Fall MZ, Rooney J, et al. Rapid identification and differentiation of Bartonella species using a single‐step PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:171722. Pubmed link
  • 490  Maguina C, Garcia PJ, Gotuzzo E, et al. Bartonellosis (Carrion's disease) in the modern era. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:7729. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 491  Kreier JP, Ristic M. The biology of hemotrophic bacteria. Annu Rev Microbiol 1981;35:32538. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 492  Ellis BA, Rotz LD, Leake JA, et al. An outbreak of acute bartonellosis (Oroya fever) in the Urubamba region of Peru, 1998. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999;61:3449. Pubmed link
  • 493  Arias‐Stella J, Lieberman PH, Erlandson RA, et al. Histology, immunohistochemistry and ultrastructure of the verruca in Carrion's disease. Am J Surg Pathol 1986;10:595610. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Ehrlichia

  • 494  Severo MS, Stephens KD, Kotsyfakis M, et al. Anaplasma phagocytophilum: deceptively simple or simply deceptive? Future Microbiol 2012;7:71931. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 495  Fishbein DB, Dawson JE, Robinson LE. Human ehrlichiosis in the United States 1985–90. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:73643. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 496  Fishbein DB, Kemp A, Dawson JE, et al. Human ehrlichiosis. Prospective active surveillance in febrile hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis 1989;160:8039. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 497  Aguero‐Rosenfeld ME, Donnarumma L, Zentamaier L, et al. Seroprevalence of antibodies that react with Anaplasma phagocytophila the agent of human granulocyte ehrlichiosis in different populations in Westchester county, New York. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:261215. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 498  Tachibana N. Sennetsu fever. The disease, diagnosis and treatment. In: Leive L, ed. Microbiology. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1986:2058.

Other Gram‐negative bacilli

  • 499  Holm P. Studies on the aetiology of human actinomycosis. Do the other microbes of actinomycosis possess virulence? Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 1951;28:391406. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 500  Lin CS, Cheng SH. Aeromonas hydrophila sepsis presenting as meningitis and necrotising fasciitis in a man with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. J Formos Med Assoc 1998;97:498502. Pubmed link
  • 501  Heckerling PS, Stine TM, Pottage JC, et al. Aeromonas hydrophila myonecrosis and gas gangrene in a non‐immunocompromised patient. South Med J 1983;143:20057.
  • 502  Hicklin H, Verghese A, Alvarez S. Dysgonic fermenter to septicemia. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9:88490. Cross Ref link
  • 503  Stoloff AL, Gillies ML. Infections with Eikenella corrodens in a general hospital; a report of 33 cases. Rev Infect Dis 1986;8:503. Cross Ref link
  • 504  Avolio M, La Spisa C, Moscariello F, et al. Aeromonas hydrophila ecthyma gangrenosum without bacteraemia in a diabetic man: the first case report in Italy. Infez Med 2009;17:1847.

Vibrio vulnificus infections

  • 505  Horseman MA, Surani S. Comprehensive review of Vibrio vulnificus: an important cause of severe sepsis and skin and soft‐tissue infection. Int J Infect Dis 2011;15:e15766. Cross Ref link
  • 506  Tackett CO, Brenner F, Blake PA. Clinical features and an epidemiologic study of Vibrio vulnificus infections. J Infect Dis 1984;149:55864. Cross Ref link
  • 507  Fujisawa H, Kohda H. Necrotising fasciitis caused by Vibrio vulnificus differs from that caused by streptococcal infection. J Infect 1998;34:118.
  • 508  Colondner R, Chazan B, Kopelowitz J, et al. Unusual portal of entry of Vibrio vulnificus: evidence of prolonged survival on the skin. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:71415. Cross Ref link

Anaerobic bacteria

  • 509  Sears CL. Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis: a rogue among symbiotes. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009;22:34969. Cross Ref link
  • 510  Sapico FL, Witte JL, Canawati HN, et al. The infected foot of the diabetic patient: quantitative microbiology and analysis of clinical features. Rev Infect Dis 1984;6:S1716. Cross Ref link

Tropical ulcer

  • 511  Adriaans B, Hay RJ, Drasar B, et al. The infectious aetiology of tropical ulcer – a study of the role of anaerobic bacteria. Br J Dermatol 1987;118:317. Cross Ref link
  • 512  Citron DM. Update on the taxonomy and clinical aspects of the genus fusobacterium. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35(Suppl. 1):S227. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 513  Morris GE, Hay RJ, Srinavasa A, et al. The diagnosis and management of tropical ulcer in East Sepik province of Papua New Guinea. J Trop Med Hyg 1989;92:21520. Pubmed link
  • 514  Robinson DC, Hay RJ. Tropical ulcer in Zambia. Trans R Soc Med Hyg 1985;80:1327. Cross Ref link
  • 515  Wilkinson M, Agett P, Cole TJ. Zinc and acute tropical ulcers in Gambian children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:4351. Pubmed link
  • 516  Kuberski T, Koteka G. An epidemic of tropical ulcer in the Cook Islands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980;29:2917. Pubmed link
  • 517  McAdam I. Tropical phagadenic ulcer in Uganda. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1966;11:1969.
  • 518  Robinson DC, Adriaans B, Hay RJ, et al. The epidemiology and clinical features of tropical ulcer. Int J Dermatol 1988;27:4953. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Spirochaetes and spiral bacteria

  • 519  Tramont EC. The impact of syphilis on humankind. Med Clin N Am 2004;326:10609.
  • 520  Shell RF, Muscher DM, eds. Pathogenesis and Immunology of Treponemal Infection. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1983.

Treponemes

  • 521  Antal GM, Lukehart SA, Meheus AZ. The endemic treponematoses. Microbes Infect 2002;4:8394. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 522  Engelkens HJ, Vuzevski VD, Stolz E. Non‐venereal treponematoses in tropical countries. Clin Dermatol 1999;17:14352. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 523  Walker SL, Hay RJ. Yaws – a review of the last 50 years. Int J Dermatol 2000;39:25860. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 524  Koff AB, Rosen T. Nonvenereal treponematoses. Yaws, endemic syphilis, and pinta. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;29:51935. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 525  Engelkens HJH. Endemic treponematoses. In: Faber WR, Hay RJ, Naafs B, eds. Imported Skin Disease. Maarssen: Elsevier, 2006:17180.
  • 526  Farnsworth N, Rosen T. Endemic treponematosis: review and update. Clin Dermatol 2006;24:18190. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 527  Asiedu K, Amouzou B, Dhariwal A, et al. Yaws eradication: past efforts and future perspectives. Bull World Health Org 2008;86:499499A. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Relapsing fever

  • 528  Bryceson ADM, Parry EHO, Perine PL, et al. Louse‐borne relapsing fever. A clinical and laboratory study of 62 cases in Ethiopia and reconsideration of the literature. Q J Med 1970;39:12970. Pubmed link
  • 529  Burgdorfer W. The epidemiology of relapsing fevers. In: Johnson RC, ed. The Biology of Parasitic Spirochetes. New York: Academic Press, 1976:191201. Cross Ref link
  • 530  Cutler SJ. Relapsing fever – a forgotten disease revealed. J Appl Microbiol 2010;108:111522. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
  • 531  Perine PL, Tekiu B. Antibiotic treatment of louse borne relapsing fever in Ethiopia: a report of 377 cases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1983;32:1096100. Pubmed link
  • 532  Guerrier G, Doherty T. Comparison of antibiotic regimens for treating louse‐borne relapsing fever: a meta‐analysis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2011;105:48390. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Borrelia

    Borrelia burgdorferi and Lyme disease

    • 533  Steere AC. Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:11519. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 534  Stanek G, Wormser GP, Gray J, Strle F. Lyme borreliosis. Lancet 2012;379:46173. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 535  Lastavica CC, Wilson ML, Berardi VP, et al. Rapid emergence of a focal epidemic of Lyme disease in coastal Massachusetts. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1337. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 536  Kean IR, Irvine KL. Lyme disease: aetiopathogenesis, factors for disease development and control. Inflammopharmacology 2013 21:10111. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 537  Cieselski CA, Markowitz LE, Horsley R, et al. Lyme disease surveillance in the United States, 1983–86. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11(Suppl. 6):S143541. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 538  Asbrink E, Olsson I. Clinical manifestations of erythema chronicum migrans afzelius in 161 patients. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1985;65:4352.
    • 539  Potok OV, Brassard A. Lyme borreliosis: an update for Canadian dermatologists. J Cutan Med Surg 2013;17:1321. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 540  Berger BW. Dermatologic manifestations of Lyme disease. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11(Suppl. 6):S147581. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 541  Muhlemann MF. Thirteen British cases of erythema chronicum migrans, a spirochaetal disease. Br J Dermatol 1984;111:3359. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 542  Muhlemann MF, Wright DJM. Emerging pattern of Lyme disease in the United Kingdom and Irish Republic. Lancet 1987;i:2602. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 543  Markowitz LE, Steere AC, Benach JL, et al. Lyme disease during pregnancy. JAMA 1986;255:33946. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 544  Olsson JC, Esterly NB. Urticarial vasculitis and Lyme disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:111416. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 545  Hovmark A, Asbrink E, Olsson I. The spirochetal etiology of lymphadenosis benigna cutis solitaria. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1986;66:47984.
    • 546  Coulson IH, Smith NP, Holden CA. Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans with coexisting morphea. Br J Dermatol 1989;121:2639. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 547  Aberer E, Kollegger H, Kristoferitsch W, et al. Neuroborreliosis in morphea and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:8205. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 548  Aberer E, Stanek G, Ertl M, et al. Evidence for spirochetal origin of circumscribed scleroderma (morphea). Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1987;67:22531.
    • 549  Weber K, Preac‐Mursic V, Reimers CD. Spirochaetes isolated from two patients with morphea. Infection 1988;16:256. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 550  Muhlemann MF, Wright DJM, Black D. Serology of Lyme disease. Lancet 1986;i:5534. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 551  Halkier‐Sorensen L, Kragballe K, Hansen K. Antibodies to the Borrelia burgdorferi flagellum in patients with scleroderma, granuloma annulare and porphyria cutanea tarda. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1989;69:11619.
    • 552  Berger BW, Clemmensen OJ, Ackerman AB. Lyme disease is a spirochetosis. A review of the disease and evidence of its cause. Am J Dermatopathol 1983;5:11124. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 553  Asbrink E, Brehmer‐Andersson E, Hovmark A. Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans – a spirochetosis. Am J Dermatopathol 1986;8:20919. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 554  Editorial. Diagnosis of Lyme disease. Lancet 1989;ii:1989.
    • 555  Steere AC, Berardi VP, Weeks KE, et al. Evaluation of the intrathecal antibody response to Borrelia burgdorferi as a diagnostic test for Lyme neuroborreliosis. J Infect Dis 1990;161:12039. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 556  Schutzer SE, Coyle PK, Belman AL, et al. Sequestration of antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi in immune complexes in seronegative Lyme disease. Lancet 1990;335:31215. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 557  Müllegger RR, Glatz M. Skin manifestations of lyme borreliosis: diagnosis and management. Am J Clin Dermatol 2008;9:35568. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 558  Lipsker D, Antoni‐Bach N, Hansmann Y, et al. Long‐term prognosis of patients treated for erythema migrans in France. Br J Dermatol 2002;146:8726. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 559  Berger BW. Treating erythema chronicum migrans of Lyme disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;15:45963. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 560  Aberer E. Lyme borreliosis – an update. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2007;5:40614. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Leptospirosis

    • 561  Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001;14:296326. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 562  Feigin RD, Anderson DC. Human leptospirosis. CRC Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1975;5:41352. Pubmed link
    • 563  Edwards CN, Nicholson GD, Hassell TA, et al. Thrombocytopenia in leptospirosis: the absence of evidence for disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:3524. Pubmed link
    • 564  Guidugli SJ, Castro AA, Atalah AN. Antibiotics for treating leptospirosis. Cochrane Review. Cochrane Library Issue 3 Oxford, 2003.

    Spirillum minor rat‐bite fever or sodoku

    • 565  Gaastra W, Boot R, Ho HT, Lipman LJ. Rat bite fever.Vet Microbiol 2009;13;133:21128. Cross Ref link
    • 566  McHugh TP, Bartlett PL, Raymond JL. Rat bite fever. Report of a fatal case. Ann Emerg Med 1985;14:111618. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Streptobacillary rat‐bite fever and Haverhill fever

    • 567  Cunningham BB, Paller AS, Katz BZ. Rat bite fever in a pet lover. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:3302. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
    • 568  Elliott SP. Rat bite fever and Streptobacillus moniliformis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007;20:1322. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Legionellosis

    • 569  Brenner DJ. Classification of the legionellae. Semin Respir Infect 1987;2:90205.
    • 570  Fields BS, Benson RF, Besser RE. Legionella and legionaires disease: 25 years of investigation. Clin Microbiol Rev 2002;15:50626. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

    Miscellaneous

      Botryomycosis

      • 571  Hacker P. Botryomycosis – review. Int J Dermatol 1983;22:4559. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 572  Askari K, Seyed Saadat SN, Seyed Saadat SM, et al. Cutaneous botryomycosis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in a patient with diabetes. Int J Dermatol 2014;53:41315. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 573  Bishop GF, Greer KE, Horwitz DA. Pseudomonas botryomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:156870. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 574  Leibowitz MR, Asvat MS, Kalla AA, et al. Extensive botryomycosis in a patient with diabetes and chronic active hepatitis. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:73942. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 575  Patterson JW, Kitces EN, Neafie RC. Cutaneous botryomycosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;16:23842. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 576  Toth IR, Kazal HL. Botryomycosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1987;111:2469. Pubmed link
      • 577  Harman RRM, English MP, Halford M, et al. Botryomycosis. A complication of extensive follicular mucinosis. Br J Dermatol 1980;102:21522. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 578  Brunken RC, Lichon‐Chao N, van den Brock H. Immunologic abnormalities in botryomycosis. A case report and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;9:42834. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 579  Martin‐Pasqual A, Perez AG. Botryomycosis. Dermatologica 1975;151:3028. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 580  Templet JT, Straub R, Ko C. Botryomycosis presenting as pruritic papules in a human immunodeficiency virus‐positive patient. Cutis 2007;80:457. Pubmed link
      • 581  Machado CR, Schubach AO, Conceição‐Silva F, et al. Botryomycosis. Dermatology 2005;211:3034. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 582  Picou K, Batres E, Jarratt M. Botryomycosis. A bacterial cause of mycetoma. Arch Dermatol 1979;115:60910. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Necrotizing subcutaneous infections

      • 583  Anaya DA, Dellinger EP. Necrotizing soft‐tissue infection: diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:70510. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 584  Singh G, Ray P, Sinha SK, et al. Bacteriology of necrotizing infections of soft tissues. Aust NZ J Surg 1996;75:8606.
      • 585  Umbert IJ, Winkelmann RK, Oliver GF, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis: a clinical, microbiologic and histopathologic study of 14 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:77481. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 586  Giuliano A, Lewis F, Hadley K, et al. Bacteriology of necrotizing fasciitis. Am J Surg 1977;134:526. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 587  Leppard BJ, Seal DV. The value of bacteriology and serology in the diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. Br J Dermatol 1983;109:3744. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 588  Kaul R, McGeer A, Low DE. Population based surveillance for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis: clinical features, prognostic indicators and microbiologic analysis of 77 cases. Ontario group A streptococcal study. Am J Med 1997;103:1824. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 589  Meleney FL. Hemolytic streptococcus gangrene. Arch Surg 1924;9:31764. Cross Ref link
      • 590  Meleney FL. Bacterial synergism in disease processes, with confirmation of the synergistic bacterial etiology of a certain type of progressive gangrene of the abdominal wall. Ann Surg 1931;94:96181. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 591  Bahlmann JCM, Fourie IJH, Arndt TCH. Fournier's gangrene; necrotizing fasciitis of the male genitalia. Br J Urol 1983;55:858. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 592  Barker FG, Leppard BJ, Seal DV. Streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis. Comparison between histological and clinical features. J Clin Pathol 1987;40:33541. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 593  Kihiczak GG, Schwartz RA, Kapila R. Necrotizing fasciitis: a deadly infection. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2006;20:3659. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 594  Goh T, Goh LG, Ang CH, et al. Early diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. Br J Surg 2014;101:e11925. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 595  Husseinzadeh N, Nahas WA, Manders EK, et al. Spontaneous occurrence of synergistic bacterial gangrene following external pelvic irradiation. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:85962. Pubmed link
      • 596  Rogers JM, Gibson JV, Farrar WE, et al. Usefulness of computerized tomography in evaluating necrotizing fasciitis. South Med J 1984;77:2823. Cross Ref link

      Mycoplasma infections

      • 597  Cassell GH, Cole BC. Mycoplasmas as agents of human disease. N Engl J Med 1981;304:806. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 598  Tully JG, Whitcomb RF, eds. The Mycoplasmas. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
      • 599  Foy HM, Kenny GE, Cooney MK, et al. Long term epidemiology of infections with Mycoplasma pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1979;139:6818. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 600  Fleming PC, Krieger E, Turner JAP, et al. Febrile mucocutaneous syndrome with respiratory involvement, associated with isolation of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Can Med Assoc J 1967;97:145861. Pubmed link
      • 601  Levy M, Shear NH. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections and Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Clin Pediatr 1991;30:426. Cross Ref link
      • 602  Li K, Haber RM. Stevens–Johnson syndrome without skin lesions (Fuchs syndrome): a literature review of adult cases with Mycoplasma cause. Arch Dermatol 2012;148:9634. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 603  Lascari AD, Garfunkel JM, Mauro DG. Varicella‐like rash associated with Mycoplasma infection. Am J Dis Child 1974;128:2546. Pubmed link
      • 604  Cherry JD, Hurwitz ES, Welliver RC. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections and exanthema. J Pediatr 1975;87:36973. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 605  Waites KB, Xiao L, Paralanov V, et al Molecular methods for the detection of Mycoplasma and ureaplasma infections in humans: a paper from the 2011 William Beaumont Hospital Symposium on molecular pathology. J Mol Diagn 2012;14:43750. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

      Chlamydiae

      • 606  Stephens RS. The cellular paradigm of chlamydial pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol 2003;11:4451. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
      • 607  Schachter J, Caldwell HD. Chlamydiae. Ann Rev Microbiol 1980;34:285309. Cross Ref link
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      • 609  King LE Jr, Stratton CW, Mitchell WM. Chlamydia pneumoniae and chronic skin wounds: a focused review. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 2001;6:2337. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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      Psittacosis

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      Rickettsial infections

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      Actinomycete infections

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      Nocardiosis

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      Chancriform pyoderma

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      Pyoderma vegetans

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      Dermatitis gangrenosa infantum

      Kawasaki disease

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