Introduction

  • 1  Cole GT, Samson RA. Patterns of Development in Conidial Fungi. London: Pitman, 1979.
  • 2  De Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gene J, Figueras MJ. Atlas of Clinical Fungi. Baarn: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Universitat Rovira I Virgili, 2000.
  • 3  Reiss E, Shadomy HJ, Lyon GM. Fundamental Medical Mycology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.
  • 4  Anaissie EJ, McGinnis MR, Pfaller MA. Clinical Mycology. Amsterdam: Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier, 2009.
  • 5  Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. Ainsworth and Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi, 10th edn. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 2008.

Basic biology

    Nomenclature

    • 6  Kurtzman CP, Fell JW, Van Rij Kreger NJW, eds. The Yeasts, 4th edn. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1998.
    • 7  International Mycological Association. IMA Fungus Report. One Fungus = Which Name? 2012. http://www.imafungus.org/Issue/31/05.pdf (last accessed October 2014).
    • 8  Council for the International Organization of the Medical Sciences (CIOMS). International Nomenclature of Diseases, Vol. II Infectious Diseases, Part 2 Mycoses. Geneva: CIOMS, 1982.
    • 9  Odds FC, Arai T, Disalvo AF, et al. Nomenclature of fungal diseases: a report and recommendations from a sub‐committee of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology (ISHAM). J Med Vet Mycol 1992;30:110.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

    Superficial mycoses

      Identification

        Wood's light examination

        • 10  Rebell G, Taplin D. Dermatophytes – their Recognition and Identification, 2nd edn. Oxford, OH: University of Miami Press, 1974.
        • 11  Davidson AM, Gregory PH. Note on an investigation into the fluorescence of hairs infected by certain fungi. Can J Res 1932;7:37885.Cross Ref link
        • 12  Wolf FT. Chemical nature of the fluorescent pigment produced in Microsporum‐infected hair. Nature 1957;4591:8601.Cross Ref link
        • 13  Felsher Z. Observations on the fluorescent material in hairs infected by Microsporon in tinea capitis. J Invest Dermatol 1949;12:13944.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 14  Chattaway FW, Barlow AJE. The fluorescent material produced in vivo by certain dermatophytes. J Gen Microbiol 1954;11:50611.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 15  Chattaway FW, Barlow AJE. Fluorescent substances produced by dermatophytes. Nature 1958;181:281.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 16  Beare JM, Walker J. Non‐fluorescent Microsporum audouinii and canis infections of the scalp. Br J Dermatol 1955;67:1014.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Collection of material

        • 17  Milne LJR, Barnetson RC St. Diagnosis of dermatophytoses using vinyl adhesive tape. Sabouraudia 1974;12:1625.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 18  Ive FA. The carrier stage of tinea capitis in Nigeria. Br J Dermatol 1966;78:21921.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 19  MacKenzie DWR. Hairbrush diagnosis in detection and eradication of non‐fluorescent scalp ringworm. BMJ 1963;ii:3635.Cross Ref link
        • 20  Friedlander SF, Pickering B, Cunninham BB, et al. Use of the cotton swab method in diagnosing tinea capitis. Pediatrics 1999;104:2769.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 21  Gentles JC. Laboratory investigations of dermatophyte infections of nails. Sabouraudia 1971;9:14952.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Direct examination

        • 22  Baudraz‐Rosselet F, Monod M, Porchet S, et al. Retrospective study on the efficacy of two methods of microscopical examination in dermatological mycology. J Mycol Med 1992;2:14850.
        • 23  Monod M, Baudraz‐Rosselet F, Ramelet AA, et al. Direct mycological examination in dermatology: a comparison of different methods. Dermatologica 1989;179:1836.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 24  Milne LJR. Direct microscopy. In: Evans EGV, Richardson MD, eds. Medical Mycology: a Practical Approach. Oxford: IRL Press, 1989:1745.
        • 25  Kejda J. Die Anwendung von Dimethylacetamid (DMAC) und Dimethylformamid (DMFA) zur schnelleren mikroskopischen Diagnostik der Dermatophytosen. Hautarzt 1967;18:5456.Pubmed link
        • 26  Chick EW, Behar VS. A simple fluorescent method for the detection of superficial fungi in skin and hair: a combined stain with acridine orange and potassium hydroxide. J Invest Dermatol 1961;37:1036.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 27  Suarez MD, Silvers DN, Scher RK, et al. Histologic evaluation of nail clippings in diagnosing onychomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1991;127:151719.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 28  Haldane DJM, Robart E. A comparison of calcofluor white, potassium hydroxide, and culture for the laboratory diagnosis of superficial fungal infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1990;13:3379.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 29  Hsiao YP, Lin HS, Wu TW, et al. A comparative study of KOH test, PAS staining and fungal culture in diagnosis of onychomycosis in Taiwan. J Dermatol Sci 2007;45:13840.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 30  Karimzadegan‐Nia M, Mir‐Amin‐Mohammadi A, Bouzari N, et al. Comparison of direct smear, culture and histology for the diagnosis of onychomycosis. Aust J Dermatol 2007;48:1821.Cross Ref link

        Molecular diagnostics

        • 31  Mochizuki T, Uehara M, Menon T, Ranganathan S. Minipreparation of total cellular DNA is useful as an alternative molecular marker of mitochondrial DNA for the identification of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum. Mycoses 1996;39:315.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 32  Liu D, Coloe S, Baird R, Pedersen J. Molecular determination of dermatophyte fungi using the arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. Br J Dermatol 1997;137:3515.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 33  Sommer S, Barton RC, Wilkinson SM, et al. Microbiological and molecular diagnosis of deep localized cutaneous infection with Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:3235.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 34  El Fari M, Tietz HJ, Presber W, et al. Development of an oligonucleotide probe specific for Trichophyton rubrum. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:2405.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 35  Kardjeva V, Summerbell R, Kantardjiev T, et al. Forty eight hour diagnosis of onychomycosis with subtyping of strains of Trichophyton rubrum strains. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:141927.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 36  Sugita T, Shiraki Y, Hiruma M. Real‐time PCR TaqMan assay for detecting Trichophyton tonsurans, a causative agent of tinea capitis, from hairbrushes. Med Mycol 2006;44:57981.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 37  Brillowska‐Dabrowska A, Michałek E, Saunte DM, et al. PCR test for Microsporum canis identification. Med Mycol 2013;51:5769.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
        • 38  Gaitanis G, Velegraki A, Frangoulis E, et al. Identification of Malassezia species from patient skin scales by PCR‐RFLP. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002;8:16273.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Identification of isolates

        • 39  Packeu A, Hendrickx M, Beguin H, et al. Identification of the Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex species using MALDI‐TOF mass spectrometry. Med Mycol 2013;51:5805.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

        Skin disease caused by Malassezia species

          Pityriasis versicolor

          • 40  Gueho E, Midgley G, Guillot J. The genus Malassezia with description of four new species. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1996;69:33755.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 41  Sugita T, Takashima M, Shinoda T, et al. New yeast species Malassezia dermatis, isolated from patients with atopic dermatitis. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:13637.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 42  Sugita T, Takashima M, Kodama M, et al. Description of a new yeast species, Malassezia japonica, and its detection in patients with atopic dermatitis and healthy subjects. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:46959.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 43  Sugita T, Tajima M, Takashima M, et al. A new yeast, Malassezia yamotoensis, isolated from a patient with seborrhoeic dermatitis, and its distribution in patients and healthy subjects. Microbiol Immunol 2004;48:57983.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 44  Hirai A, Kano R, Makimura K, et al. Malassezia nana sp. nov., a novel lipid‐dependent yeast species isolated from animals. Int J System Evol Microbiol 2004;54:6237.Cross Ref link
          • 45  Cabanes FJ, Theelen B, Castella G, et al. Two new lipid‐dependent Malassezia species from domestic animals. FEMS Yeast Res 2007;7:106476.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 46  Cabanes FJ, Vega S, Castella G. Malassezia cuniculi sp nov., a novel yeast species isolated from rabbit skin. Med Mycol 2011;49:408.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 47  Crespo‐Erchiga V, Ojeda Martos A, Vera Casano A, et al. Malassezia globosa as the causative agent of pityriasis versicolor. Br J Dermatol 1999;143:799803.Cross Ref link
          • 48  Gupta AK, Kohli Y, Faergemann J, et al. Epidemiology of Malassezia yeasts associated with pityriasis versicolor in Ontario, Canada. Med Mycol 2001;39:199206.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 49  De Quinzada M. Estudio de las Especies de Malassezia relacionadas con la Patologia Cutanea Pitiriasis versicolor en Panama [Thesis]. University of Panama, 2005.
          • 50  Crespo Erchiga V, Delgado Florencio V. Malassezia species in skin diseases. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2002;15:13342.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 51  Piamphongsant T. Pityriasis pigmentosa: clinical features of pathogenic Pityrosporum ovale. J Dermatol 1983;10:35560.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 52  Borelli D. Pitiriasis versicolor por Malassezia ovalis. Mycopathologia 1985;89:14753.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 53  Roberts SOB. Pityriasis versicolor. In: Verbov JL, ed. Superficial Fungal Infections. Lancaster: MTP Press, 1986:4772.
          • 54  Dorn M, Roehnert K. Dimorphism of Pityrosporum orbiculare in a defined culture medium. J Invest Dermatol 1977;69:2448.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 55  Nazzaro‐Porro M, Passi S, Caprilli F. Induction of hyphae in cultures in Pityrosporum by cholesterol and cholesterol esters. J Invest Dermatol 1977;69:5314.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 56  Salkin IF, Gordon MA. Polymorphism of Malassezia furfur. Can J Microbiol 1977;23:4715.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 57  Roberts SOB. Pityrosporum orbiculare: incidence and distribution on clinically normal skin. Br J Dermatol 1969;81:2649.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 58  Del Palacio Hernanz A, Delgado Vicente S, Menendez Ramos F, et al. Randomized comparative clinical trial of itraconazole and selenium sulfide shampoo for the treatment of pityriasis versicolor. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):S1217.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 59  Burke RC. Tinea versicolor: susceptibility factors and experimental infections in human beings. J Invest Dermatol 1961;36:398402.Cross Ref link
          • 60  Mathes BM, Douglas MC. Seborrheic dermatitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;13:94751.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 61  Midgley G, Hay RJ. Serological responses to Pityrosporum (Malassezia) in seborrhoeic dermatitis demonstrated by ELISA and western blotting. Bull Soc Fr Med Mycol 1983;17:26778.
          • 62  Ashbee HR, Ingham E, Holland KT, et al. Cell‐mediated immune responses to Malassezia furfur serovars A, B and C in patients with pityriasis versicolor, seborrheic dermatitis and controls. Exp Dermatol 1994;3:10612.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 63  Saadatzadeh MR, Ashbee HR, Cunliffe WJ, Ingham E. Cell mediated immunity to the mycelial phase of Malassezia spp. in patients with pityriasis versicolor and controls. Br J Dermatol 2001;144:7784.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 64  Ashbee HR. Recent developments in the immunology and biology of Malassezia species. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2006;47:1423.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 65  Ashbee HR. Update on the genus Malassezia. Med Mycol 2007;45:287303.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 66  Kesavan S, Walters CE, Holland KT, et al. The effects of Malassezia on pro‐inflammatory cytokine production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. Med Mycol 1998;36:97106.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 67  Brasch J, Martens H, Sterry W. Langerhans' cell accumulation in chronic tinea pedis and pityriasis versicolor. Clin Exp Dermatol 1993;18:32932.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 68  Nazzaro‐Porro M, Passi S. Identification of tyrosinase inhibitors in cultures of Pityrosporum. J Invest Dermatol 1978;71:389402.
          • 69  Breathnach AS, Nazzaro‐Porro M, Martin B. Ultrastructure of skin in pityriasis versicolor. Minerva Dermatol 1975;10:45769.
          • 70  El‐Gothamy Z, Abdel‐Fattah A, Choly AF. Tinea versicolor hypopigmentation: histochemical and therapeutic studies. Int J Dermatol 1975;14:51015.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 71  Galadari I, El Komy M, Mousa A, et al. Tinea versicolor: histologic and ultrastructural investigation of pigmentary changes. Int J Dermatol 1992;31:2536.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 72  Roberts SOB. Pityriasis versicolor: a clinical and mycological investigation. Br J Dermatol 1969;81:31526.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 73  Marples MJ. The incidence of certain skin diseases in western Samoa: a preliminary survey. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1950;44:31932.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 74  Tellechea O, Cravo M, Brinca A, Robalo‐Cordeiro M. Pityriasis versicolor atrophicans. Eur J Dermatol 2012;2:2878.
          • 75  Kolecka A, Khayhan K, Arabatzis M, et al. Efficient identification of Malassezia yeasts by matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization‐time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI‐TOF MS). Br J Dermatol 2014;170:3324.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 76  Svejgaard E. Double blind trial of miconazole in dermatomycosis. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1973;53:4979.
          • 77  Galimberti RL, Villalba I, Galarza S, et al. Itraconazole in pityriasis versicolor: ultrastructural changes in Malassezia furfur produced during treatment. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):1348.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 78  Delescluse J. Itraconazole in tinea versicolor: a review. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:5514.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 79  Faergemann J, Fredriksson T. Propylene glycol in the treatment of pityriasis versicolor. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1980;60:923.

          Malassezia folliculitis

          • 80  Back O, Faergemann J, Hornquist R. Pityrosporum folliculitis: a common disease of the young and middle aged. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:5661.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 81  Archer‐Dubon C, Icaza‐Chivez ME, Orozco‐Topete R et al. An epidemic outbreak of Malassezia folliculitis in three adult patients in an intensive care unit: a previously unrecognized nosocomial infection. Int J Dermatol 1999;38:4536.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Other cutaneous disorders associated with Malassezia yeasts

          • 82  Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Kligman AM. The role of microorganisms in dandruff. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:3338.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 83  Gosse RM, Vanderwyk RW. The relationship of a nystatin resistant strain of Pityrosporum ovale to dandruff. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1969;20:6039.
          • 84  Shuster S. Aetiology of dandruff and the mode of action of therapeutic agents. Br J Dermatol 1984;111:23542.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 85  Faergemann J, Fredriksson T. Experimental infections in rabbits and humans with Pityrosporum orbiculare and P. ovale. J Invest Dermatol 1981;77:31418.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 86  Midgley G, Hay RJ. Serological responses to Pityrosporum (Malassezia) in seborrhoeic dermatitis demonstrated by ELISA and western blotting. Bull Soc Fr Med Mycol 1988;17:26778.
          • 87  Mathes BM, Douglas MC. Seborrhoeic dermatitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;113:94751.Cross Ref link
          • 88  Soeprono FF, Schinella RA, Cockerell CJ, et al. Seborrhoeic‐like dermatitis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;14:2428.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 89  Crespo Erchiga V, Delgado Florencio V. Malassezia species in skin diseases. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2002;15:13342.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 90  Wilde PF, Stewart PS. A study of the fatty acid metabolism of the yeast Pityrosporum ovale. Biochem J 1968;108:22531.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 91  Magiatis P, Pappas P, Gaitanis G, et al. Malassezia yeasts produce a collection of exceptionally potent activators of the Ah (dioxin) receptor detected in diseased human skin. J Invest Dermatol 2013;133:202330.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 92  Vlachos C, Gaitanis G, Alexopoulos EC, et al. Phospholipase activity after β‐endorphin exposure discriminates Malassezia strains isolated from healthy and seborrhoeic dermatitis skin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2013;12:15758.Cross Ref link
          • 93  Hjorth N, Clemmensen OJ. Treatment of dermatitis of the head and neck with ketoconazole in patients with type 1 hypersensitivity for Pityrosporum orbiculare. Semin Dermatol 1983;2:269.
          • 94  Back O, Faergemann J, Hornquist R. Pityrosporum folliculitis: a common disease of the young and middle aged. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:5661.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 95  Archer‐Dubon C, Icaza‐Chivez ME, Orozco‐Topete R, et al. An epidemic outbreak of Malassezia folliculitis in three adult patients in an intensive care unit: a previously unrecognized nosocomial infection. Int J Dermatol 1999;38:4536.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 96  Faergemann J, Fredriksson T, Nathorst‐Windahl G. One case of confluent and reticulate papillomatosis (Gougerot–Carteaud). Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1980;60:26971.
          • 97  Roberts SOB, Lachapelle JM. Confluent and reticulate papillomatosis (Gougerot–Carteaud) and Pityrosporum orbiculare. Br J Dermatol 1969;81:8413.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
          • 98  Yesudian P, Kamalam S, Raszack A. Confluent and reticulate papillomatosis (Gougerot–Carteaud). Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1973;53:3814.
          • 99  Rosenberg EW, Belew PW. Improvement of psoriasis of the scalp with ketoconazole. Arch Dermatol 1982;118:3701.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

          Superficial mycoses caused by other species

            Tinea nigra

            • 100  McGinnis MR, Schell WA, Carson J. Phaeoannellomyces and the Phaeococcomycetaceae: a new dematiaceous blastomycete taxa. Sabouraudia 1985;23:17988.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 101  McGinnis MR, Padhye AA. Cladosporium castellani is a synonym of Stenella araguata. Mycotaxon 1978;7:41518.
            • 102  Perez C, Colella MT, Olaizola C, et al. Tinea nigra: report of twelve cases in Venezuela. Mycopathologia 2005;160:2358.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 103  Carr JF, Lewes CW. Tinea nigra palmaris. Arch Dermatol 1975;111:9045.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 104  Hall J, Perry VE. Tinea nigra palmaris: differentiation from malignant melanoma or junctional nevi. Cutis 1998;62:456.Pubmed link
            • 105  Severo LC, Bassanesi MC, Londero AT. Tinea nigra: report of four cases observed in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) and a review of Brazilian literature. Mycopathologia 1994;126:15762.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 106  Burke WA. Tinea nigra: treatment with topical ketoconazole. Cutis 1993;52:20911.Pubmed link
            • 107  Rossetto AL, Cruz RC. Tinea nigra: successful treatment with topical butenafine. An Bras Dermatol 2012;87:93941.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

            Black piedra

            • 108  Adam BA, Soo Hoo TS, Chong KC. Black piedra in West Malaysia. Aust J Dermatol 1977;18:457.Cross Ref link
            • 109  Takashio M, de Vroey C. Piedra noire chez des chimpanzées du Zaire. Sabouraudia 1975;13:5862.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 110  Coimbra CEA, Santos RV. Black piedra among the Zoro indians from Amazonia (Brazil). Mycopathologia 1989;107:5760.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 111  Chong KC, Adam BA, Soo Hoo TS. Morphology of Piedraia hortae. Sabouraudia 1975;13:15760.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 112  Gip L. Black piedra: the first case treated with terbinafine (Lamisil). Br J Dermatol 1994;130(Suppl. 43):268.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

            White piedra

            • 113  Therizol‐Ferly M, Kombila M, Gomez de Diaz M, et al. White piedra and Trichosporon species in equatorial Africa: 1. History and clinical aspects: an analysis of 449 superficial inguinal specimens. Mycoses 1994;37:24953.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 114  Benson PM, Lapins NA, Odom RB. White piedra. Arch Dermatol 1983;119:6024.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 115  Coquilla BH, Kraus EW. Trichosporosis (white piedra): four cases in the United States. J Assoc Milit Dermatol 1983;9:279.
            • 116  Kalter DCA, Tschen JA, Cernoch PL, et al. Genital white piedra: epidemiology, microbiology and therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;14:98293.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 117  Lassus A, Kanerva L, Stubbs S, et al. White piedra. Arch Dermatol 1982;118:20811.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 118  Grainger CR. White piedra: a case with evidence of spread by contact. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1986;80:87.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 119  McBride ME, Ellner KM, Black HS, et al. A new Brevibacterium sp. isolated from infected genital hair of patients with white piedra. J Med Microbiol 1993;39:25561.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 120  Ellner KM, McBride M, Kalter DC, et al. White piedra: evidence for a synergistic infection. Br J Dermatol 1990;123:35563.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 121  Gueho E, Improvisi L, de Hoog GS, Dupont B. Trichosporon on humans: a practical account. Mycoses 1994;37:310.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 122  Mok WY, Barreto da Silva MS. Mycoflora of the human dermal surface. Can J Microbiol 1984;30:12059.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

            Otomycosis

            • 123  Kingery FA. The myth of otomycosis. JAMA 1965;191:12936.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 124  Kurnatowski P, Filipiak A. Otomycosis: prevalence, clinical symptoms, therapeutic procedures. Mycoses 2001;44:4729.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 125  Ho T, Vrabec JT, Yoo D, et al. Otomycosis: clinical features and treatment implications. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006;135:78791.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 126  Grigoriou D, Font N. Les otomycoses. Dermatologica 1970;141:13842.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 127  Bickley LS, Betts RF, Parkins CW. Atypical invasive external otitis from Aspergillus. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1988;114:10248.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 128  Iwatsu T, Takano M, Okamoto S. Auricular chromomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1983;119:879.
            • 129  Cox RL, Reller LB. Auricular sporotrichosis in a brick mason. Arch Dermatol 1979;115:122930.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
            • 130  El‐Gothamy MAB, El‐Gothamy Z. Otomycosis: a new line of treatment. Castellania 1977;5:21516.
            • 131  Del Palacio A, Lopez‐Suso MJ, Moore MK, et al. Long‐term follow‐up of otomycosis and its treatment with bifonazole. J Med Vet Mycol 1993;31:43547.Cross Ref link

            Miscellaneous superficial mycoses caused by saprophytic moulds

            • 132  English MP. Invasion of the skin by filamentous non‐dermatophyte fungi. Br J Dermatol 1968;80:2826.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

            DERMATOPHYTOSIS

              Classification, General description

              • 133  Makimura K, Tamura Y, Mochizuki T, et al. Phylogenetic classification and species identification of dermatophyte strains based on DNA sequences of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 regions. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:9204.Pubmed link
              • 134  Lui D, Coloe S, Baird R, et al. Application of PCR to the identification of dermatophyte fungi. J Med Microbiol 2000;49:4937.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 135  Weitzman I, McGinnis MR, Padhye AA, Ajello L. The genus Arthroderma and its later synonym Nannizzia. Mycotaxon 1986;25:50518.
              • 136  Gräser Y, Kuijpers AFA, Presber W, de Hoog GS. Molecular taxonomy of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. tonsurans. Med Mycol 1999;37:31530.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 137  Woodgyer A. The curious adventure of Trichophyton equinum in the realm of molecular biology: a modern fairy tale. Med Mycol 2004;42:397403.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 138  Summerbell RC, Haugland R, Li A, Gupta AK. Ribosomal RNA gene internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2 equences of asexual, anthropophilic dermatophytes related to Trichophyton rubrum. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:400511.Pubmed link
              • 139  Summerbell RC. Trichophyton, Microsporum, Epidermophyton, and agents of superficial mycosis. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Jorgensen JH, et al., eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th edn. Washington, DC: ASM Press, 2003:1798819.
              • 140  Gräser Y, de Hoog GS, Summerbell, RC. Dermatophytes: recognizing species of clonal fungi. Med Mycol 2006;44:199209.Pubmed link
              • 141  Emmons CW. Dermatophytes: natural groupings based on the form of the spores and accessory organs. Arch Dermatol Syphilol 1934;30:33762.Cross Ref link
              • 142  Barlow AJE, English MP. Mycology. In: Rook A, ed. Recent Advances in Dermatology, Vol. 3. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1973:3347.
              • 143  Borman AM, Campbell CK, Fraser M, Johnson EM. Analysis of the dermatophyte species isolated in the British Isles between 1980 and 2005 and review of worldwide dermatophyte trends over the last three decades. Med Mycol 2007;45:13141.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 144  Rippon JW. Medical Mycology: the Pathogenic Fungi and the Pathogenic Actinomycetes, 3rd edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1988.
              • 145  Tanaka S, Summerbell RC, Tsuboi R, et al. Advances in dermatophytes and dermatophytosis. J Med Vet Mycol 1992;30(Suppl. 1):2939.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 146  Weitzman I, Summerbell R. The dermatophytes. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995;8:24059.Pubmed link

              Basic biology

              • 147  Jones HE, Reinhardt JH, Rinaldi MG. A clinical, mycological and immunological survey of dermatophytosis. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:618.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 148  Kligman AM. The pathogenesis of tinea capitis due to Microsporum audouinii and Microsporum canis. J Invest Dermatol 1952;18:23146.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 149  Mycology Online. Dermatophytsis. University of Adelaide. http://www.mycology.adelaide.edu.au/Mycoses/Cutaneous/Dermatophytosis (last accessed October 2014).
              • 150  Zurita J, Hay RJ. The adherence of dermatophyte microconidia and arthroconidia to human keratinocytes in vitro. J Invest Dermatol 1987;89:52934.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 151  Al Jabre SHM, Richardson MD, Scott EM, et al. Adherence of arthroconidia and germlings of anthropophilic and zoophilic varieties of Trichophyton mentagrophytes to human corneocytes as an early event in the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1993;18:2315.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 152  Raubitschek F, Maoz R. Invasion of nails in vitro by certain dermatophytes. J Invest Dermatol 1957;28:2618.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 153  Sriranganadane D, Waridel P, Salamin K, et al. Identification of novel secreted proteases during extracellular proteolysis by dermatophytes at acidic pH. Proteomics 2011;11:442233.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 154  Staib P, Zaugg C, Mignon B, et al. Differential gene expression in the pathogenic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae in vitro versus during infection. Microbiology 2010;156:88495.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 155  Siesenop U, Bohm KH. Comparative studies on keratinase production of Trichophyton mentagrophytes of animal origin. Mycoses 1995;38:2059.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 156  Wagner DK, Sohnle PG. Cutaneous defences against dermatophytes and yeasts. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995;8:31755.Pubmed link
              • 157  Descamps F, Brouta F, Monod M, et al. Isolation of a Microsporum canis gene family encoding three subtilisin‐like proteases expressed in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 2002;119:8305.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 158  Sohnle PG. Dermatophytosis. In: Cox RA, ed. Immunology of Fungal Diseases. Florida: CRC Press, 1989:127.
              • 159  Poulain D, Tronchin G, Vernes A, et al. Experimental study of resistance to infection by Trichophyton mentagrophytes: demonstration of memory T cells. J Invest Dermatol 1980;74:20511.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 160  King RD, Khan HA, Foye JC, et al. Transferrin, iron and dermatophytes. 1. Serum dermatophyte inhibitory component definitely identified as unsaturated transferrin. J Lab Clin Med 1975;86:20412.Pubmed link
              • 161  Green F, Lee KW, Balish E. Chronic T. mentagrophytes dermatophytosis of guinea pig skin grafts on nude mice. J Invest Dermatol 1982;79:12531.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 162  Davies RR, Zaini F. Drugs affecting Trichophyton rubrum induced neutrophil chemotaxis in vitro. Clin Exp Dermatol 1988;13:22831.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 163  Niyonsaba F, Ogawa H. Protective roles of the skin against infection: implication of naturally occurring human antimicrobial agents β‐defensins, cathelicidin LL‐37 and lysozyme. J Dermatol Sci 2005;40:15768.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 164  Schittek B, Hipfel R, Sauer B, et al. Dermcidin: a novel human antibiotic peptide secreted by sweat glands. Nature Immunol 2001;2:11337.Cross Ref link
              • 165  Calderon RA, Hay RJ. Fungicidal activity of human neutrophils and monocytes on dermatophyte fungi, Trichophyton quinckeanum and Trichophyton rubrum. Immunology 1986;61:28995.
              • 166  Hay RJ, Reid S, Talwat E, et al. Immune responses of patients with tinea imbricata. Br J Dermatol 1983;108:5819.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 167  Kaaman T, von Stedingk LV, von Stedingk M, et al. ELISA determined serological reactivity against purified trichophytin in dermatophytosis. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1981;61:31317.
              • 168  Calderon RA, Hay RJ. Cell‐mediated immunity in experimental murine dermatophytosis. II. Adoptive transfer of immunity to dermatophyte infection by lymphoid cells from donors with acute or chronic infections. Immunology 1984;53:40510.
              • 169  Jones HE, Reinhardt JH, Rinaldi MG. Acquired immunity to dermatophytosis. Arch Dermatol 1974;109:8408.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 170  Jones HE, Reinhardt JH, Rinaldi MG. Model dermatophytosis in naturally infected subjects. Arch Dermatol 1974;110:36974.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 171  Rasmussen JE, Ahmed AR. Trichophytin reactions in children with tinea capitis. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:3712.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 172  Hay RJ, Shennan G. Chronic dermatophyte infections. II. Antibody and cell‐mediated immune responses. Br J Dermatol 1982;106:1915.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 173  Koga T, Shimizu A, Nakayama J. Interferon‐gamma production in peripheral lymphocytes of patients with tinea pedis: comparison of patients with and without tinea unguium. Med Mycol 2001;39:8790.Pubmed link
              • 174  MacGregor JM, Hamilton A, Hay RJ. Possible mechanisms of immune modulation in chronic dermatophytoses: an in vitro study. Br J Dermatol 1992;127:2338.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 175  Mayou SC, Calderon RA, Goodfellow A et al. Deep (subcutaneous) dermatophyte infection presenting with unilateral lymphoedema. Clin Exp Dermatol 1987;12:3858.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Pathophysiology

              • 176  Leyden JJ, Kligman AM. Interdigital athletes foot: the interaction of dermatophytes and residual bacteria. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:146672.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 177  Poulain D, Tronchin G, Vernes A, et al. Experimental study of resistance to infection by Trichophyton mentagrophytes: demonstration of memory T cells. J Invest Dermatol 1980;74:20511.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 178  Blank F, Mann SJ, Peak PA. Distribution of dermatophytes according to age, ethnic group and sex. Sabouraudia 1974;12:35261.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 179  Serjeantson S, Lawrence G. Autosomal recessive inheritance of susceptibility to tinea imbricata. Lancet 1977;i:135.Cross Ref link
              • 180  Van de Veerdonk FL, Plantinga TS, Hoischen A, et al. STAT1 mutations in autosomal dominant chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2011;365:5461.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 181  Lanternier F, Pathan S, Vincent QB, et al. Deep dermatophytosis and inherited CARD9 deficiency. N Engl J Med 2013;369:170414.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 182  Abdel‐Rahman SM, Preuett BL. Genetic predictors of susceptibility to cutaneous fungal infections: a pilot genome wide association study to refine a candidate gene search. J Dermatol Sci 2012;67:14752.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 183  Torssander J, Karlsson A, Morfeldt‐Mason L, et al. Dermatophytosis and HIV infection: a study in homosexual men. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1988;68:539.
              • 184  Hay RJ, Campbell CK, Wingfield R, et al. A comparative study of dermatophytosis in coal miners and dermatological outpatients. Br J Indust Med 1983;40:3535.
              • 185  Allen AM, King RD. Occlusion, carbon dioxide and fungal skin infections. Lancet 1978;1:3602.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 186  Bibel DJ, Smiljanic RJ. Interactions of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and micrococci on skin culture. J Invest Dermatol 1979;72:1337.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Identification

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              • 188  Kane J, Summerbell R, Sigler L, et al. Laboratory Handbook of Dermatophytes. Belmont, CA: Star, 1997.
              • 189  Segretain GE, Drouhet F, Mariat F. Diagnostic de Laboratoire en Mycologie Medicale. Paris: Maloine, 1987.
              • 190  Carfachia C, Iatta R, Latrofa MS, et al. Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny and evolution of dermatophytes. Infect Genet Evol 2013;20:33651.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 191  Midgley G. A glabrous Microsporum canis in Greater London. Sabouraudia 1981;19:717.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Management

              • 192  Krowchuk DP, Lucky AW, Primmer SI. Current status of the identification and management of tinea capitis. Pediatrics 1983;72:62531.Pubmed link
              • 193  Hay RJ, Del Palacio Hernanz A, eds. First symposium on terbinafine. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989;14:97127.Cross Ref link
              • 194  Ryder NS, Meith H. Allylamine antifungal drugs. In: Borgers M, Hay R, Rinaldi MG, eds. Current Topics in Medical Mycology, Vol. 4. New York: Springer, 1992:15888.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 195  Faergemann J, Zehender H, Millerioux L. Levels of terbinafine in plasma, stratum corneum, dermis–epidermis (without stratum corneum), sebum, hair and nails during and after 250 mg terbinafine orally once daily for 7 and 14 days. Clin Exp Dermatol 1994;19:1216.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 196  Van der Schroeff JG, Cirkel PKS, Crijns MB, et al. A randomised treatment duration‐finding study of terbinafine in onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1992;126(Suppl. 39):369.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 197  Goodfield MJD, Rowell NR, Forster RA, et al. Treatment of dermatophyte infection of the finger‐ and toenails with terbinafine (SF 86–327, Lamisil), an orally active fungicidal agent. Br J Dermatol 1989;121:7538.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 198  Elewski B. Cutaneous mycoses in children. Br J Dermatol 1996;134(Suppl. 46):711.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 199  Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 1989;37:31044.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 200  Hay RJ, ed. Itraconazole. Manchester: Adis, 1994.
              • 201  Willemsen M, De Doncker P, Willems J, et al. Post‐treatment itraconazole levels in the nail. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;131:91922.
              • 202  Degreef H, Marien K, De Veylder H, et al. Itraconazole in the treatment of dermatophytoses: a comparison of two daily dosages. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):1048.Cross Ref link
              • 203  Legendre R, Esola‐Moire J. Itraconazole in the treatment of tinea capitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:55960.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 204  Davies RR. Griseofulvin. In: Speller DCE, ed. Antifungal Chemotherapy. Chichester: Wiley, 1980:14982.
              • 205  Beghin D, Vanbreuseghem R. Traitment des dermatophyties du cuir chevelu par une dose unique de griséofulvine; essai d'une dose reduite. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 1974;54:47781.Pubmed link
              • 206  Jones HE, ed. Ketoconazole Today: a Review of Clinical Experience. Manchester: Adis, 1987.
              • 207  Shemer A, Plotnik IB, Davidovici B, et al. Treatment of tinea capitis – griseofulvin versus fluconazole – a comparative study. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2013;11:73742.Pubmed link
              • 208  Baily GG, Perry FM, Denning DW, Mandal BH. Fluconazole resistant candidiasis in an HIV cohort. AIDS 1994;8:78792.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 209  Botter AA. Topical treatment of nail and skin infections with miconazole, a new broad‐spectrum antimycotic. Mykosen 1971;14:18791.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 210  Burgess MA, Bodey GP. Clotrimazole (Bay b 5097): in vitro and clinical pharmacological studies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1972;2:4239.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 211  Clayton YM, Connor BL. Comparison of clotrimazole cream, Whitfield's ointment and nystatin ointment for the topical treatment of ringworm infections, pityriasis versicolor, erythrasma and candidiasis. Br J Dermatol 1973;89:297303.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 212  Clayton YM, Knight AG. A clinical double blind trial of topical miconazole and clotrimazole against superficial fungal infection and erythrasma. Clin Exp Dermatol 1976;1:2259.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 213  Rotta I, Ziegelmann PK, Otuki MF, et al. Efficacy of topical antifungals in the treatment of dermatophytosis: a mixed‐treatment comparison meta‐analysis involving 14 treatments. JAMA Dermatol 2013;149:3419.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 214  Fromtling RA. Imidazoles as medically important antifungal agents: an overview. Drugs Today 1984;20:32549.
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              • 216  Reinel D. Topical treatment of onychomycosis with amorolfine 5% nail lacquer: comparative efficacy and tolerability of once and twice weekly use. Dermatology 1992;182(Suppl.):214.Cross Ref link

              Tinea corporis

              • 217  De Vroey C. Epidemiology of ringworm (dermatophytosis). Semin Dermatol 1985;4:185200.
              • 218  Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections. Mycopathologia 2008;166:33552.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18478365
              • 219  Rippon JW. Epidemiology and emerging patterns of dermatophyte species. In: McGinnis MR, ed. Current Topics in Medical Mycology. New York: Springer, 1985;1:20834.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 220  Bhardway G, Hajini GH, Khan IA, et al. Dermatophytosis in Kashmir, India. Mykosen 1987;30:1358.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 221  Blank H, Taplin D, Zaias N. Cutaneous Trichophyton mentagrophytes infections in Vietnam. Arch Dermatol 1969;99:13544.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 222  Allen DE, Synderman R, Meadows L, et al. Generalized Microsporum audouinii infection and depressed cellular immunity associated with a missing plasma factor for lymphocyte blastogenesis. Am J Med 1977;63:9911000.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 223  Friedman L, Derbes VJ. The question of immunity in ringworm infection. Ann NY Acad Sci 1960;89:17883.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 224  Hall FR. Ringworm contracted from cattle in western New York State. Arch Dermatol 1966;94:357.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 225  Rosman N. Infection with Trichophyton rubrum. Br J Dermatol 1966;78:20812.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 226  Blank H, Smith JG. Widespread Trichophyton rubrum granulomas treated with griseofulvin. Arch Dermatol 1960;81:77985.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 227  Wilson JW, Plunkett DA. Nodular granulomatous perifolliculitis due to Trichophyton rubrum. Arch Dermatol 1954;64:25877.Cross Ref link
              • 228  Hay RJ. Tinea imbricata. In: Van den Bossche H, Hay RJ, Rinaldi M, eds. Current Topics in Medical Mycology, Vol. 2. New York: Springer, 1987:5572.
              • 229  Serjeantson S, Lawrence G. Autosomal recessive inheritance of susceptibility to tinea imbricata. Lancet 1977;1:1315.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 230  Logan R, Kobza‐Black A. Tinea imbricata in a British nurse. Clin Exp Dermatol 1988;13:2323.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 231  Hay RJ, Reid S, Talwat E, et al. Endemic tinea imbricata: a study on Goodenough Island, Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med 1984;78:24651.Cross Ref link
              • 232  Liautaud B, Marill FG. La maladie dermatophytique: observations Algeriene récentes. Bull Soc Fr Pathol Exotique 1984;77:63748.
              • 233  Sommer S, Barton RC, Wilkinson SM, et al. Microbiological and molecular diagnosis of deep localized cutaneous infection with Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:3235.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 234  Mayou SC, Calderon RA, Goodfellow A, et al. Deep (subcutaneous) dermatophyte infection presenting with unilateral lymphoedema. Clin Exp Dermatol 1987;12:3858.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 235  Swart E, Smith FJA. Trichophyton violaceum abscesses. Br J Dermatol 1979;101:17783.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 236  Chastain MA, Reed RJ, Pankey GA. Deep dermatophytosis: report of two cases and review of the literature. Cutis 2001;67:45762.Pubmed link

              Tinea capitis

              • 237  Hay RJ. Tinea Capitis. London: Mosby Wolfe, 1999.
              • 238  Clayton YM, Midgley G. Tinea capitis in schoolchildren in London. Hautarzt 1977;28:324.Pubmed link
              • 239  Elewski BE. Tinea capitis: a current perspective. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;42:120.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 240  Ginter‐Hanselmayer G, Stary A, Messeritsch‐Fanta C. Current situation of tinea capitis in southeastern Austria. Clin Dermatol 2002;20:1836.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 241  Verhagen AR. Distribution of dermatophytes causing tinea capitis in Africa. Trop Geogr Med 1978;26:10120.
              • 242  Karaoui R, Selim M, Mousa A. Incidence of dermatophytosis in Kuwait. Sabouraudia 1979;17:1317.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 243  Elewski B. Tinea capitis. Dermatol Clin 1996;14:2331.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 244  Hay RJ, Clayton YM, De Silva N, et al. Tinea capitis in south‐east London: a new pattern of infection with public health implications. Br J Dermatol 1996;135:9558.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 245  Hay RJ, Robles W, Midgley G, Moore MK; European Confederation of Medical Mycology Working Party on Tinea Capitis. Tinea capitis in Europe: new perspective on an old problem. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2001;15:22933.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 246  MacKenzie DWR. Hairbrush technique in detection and eradication of non‐fluorescent scalp ringworm. BMJ 1963;ii:3635.Cross Ref link
              • 247  Wright S, Robertson VJ. An institutional survey of tinea capitis in Harare, Zimbabwe and a trial of miconazole cream versus Whitfield's ointment in its treatment. Clin Exp Dermatol 1986;11:3717.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 248  Kligman AM. The pathogenesis of tinea capitis due to Microsporum audouinii and Microsporum canis. J Invest Dermatol 1952;18:23146.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 249  Kligman AM. Tinea capitis due to Microsporum audouinii and M. canis. Arch Dermatol 1955;71:31348.Cross Ref link
              • 250  Joly J, Delage G. Favus: 20 indigenous cases in Province of Quebec. Arch Dermatol 1973;114:16478.Cross Ref link
              • 251  Gugnani HC, Njoku‐Obi ANU. Tinea capitis in school children in East Nigeria. Mykosen 1986;29:13244.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 252  Ive FA. The carrier state of tinea capitis in Nigeria. Br J Dermatol 1966;78:21921.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 253  De Vroey C. Epidemiology of ringworm (dermatophytosis). Semin Dermatol 1985;4:185200.
              • 254  Purlsey TV, Raimer SS. Tinea capitis in the elderly. Int J Dermatol 1980;19:2201.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 255  Ridley CM. Tinea capitis in an elderly woman. Clin Exp Dermatol 1979;4:2479.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 256  Fuller LC, Child FC, Higgins EM. Tinea capitis in southeast London: an outbreak of Trichophyton tonsurans infection. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:13945.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 257  West BC, Kwon‐Chung KJ. Mycetoma caused by Microsporum audouinii. Am J Clin Pathol 1980;73:44754.Pubmed link
              • 258  Rasmussen JE, Ahmed AR. Trichophytin reactions in children with tinea capitis. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:3712.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 259  Birt AR, Wilt JC. Mycology, bacteriology and histopathology of suppurative ringworm. Arch Dermatol 1957;69:4418.Cross Ref link
              • 260  Branson DN, Desai DR, Barsky S, et al. An epidemic of infection with Trichophyton tonsurans revealed in a 20‐year‐old survey of fungal infections in Chicago. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:32230.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 261  Rudolph AH. The diagnosis and treatment of tinea capitis due to Trichophyton tonsurans. Int J Dermatol 1985;24:42631.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 262  Willigen AH, Oranje AP, Ameijden SW‐A, et al. Tinea capitis in the Netherlands. Mycoses 1990;33:4650.Pubmed link
              • 263  Babel D, Baughman SA. Evaluation of the carrier state in juvenile tinea capitis caused by Trichophyton tonsurans. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:120912.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 264  Pipkin JL. Tinea capitis in the adult and adolescent. Arch Dermatol 1952;66:940.Cross Ref link
              • 265  Prevost E. Non‐fluorescent tinea capitis in Charleston, SC: a diagnostic problem. JAMA 1979;242:17657.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 266  Kalter DC, Hay RJ. Onychomycosis due to Trichophyton soudanense. Clin Exp Dermatol 1988;13:2217.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 267  Vanbreuseghem R. Trichophyton soudanense infection in and outside Africa. Br J Dermatol 1968;80:1408.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 268  Scott DB, Scott FP. Dermatophytoses in South Africa. Sabouraudia 1973;11:27982.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 269  Blank F. Human favus in Quebec. Dermatologica 1962;125:36981.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 270  Shockman J, Urbach F. Tinea capitis in Philadelphia. Int J Dermatol 1983;22:5214.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 271  Krowchuk DP, Lucky AW, Primmer SI. Current status of the identification and management of tinea capitis. Paediatrics 1983;72:62531.
              • 272  Health Protection Agency. Tinea Capitis in the United Kingdom: a Report on its Diagnosis, Management and Prevention. HPA Publications, 2008. http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/hpawebfile/hpaweb_c/1194947321499 (last accessed October 2014).

              Tinea barbae

              • 273  Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections Mycopathologia. 2008;166:3352.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 274  Ive FA, Marks R. Tinea incognito. BMJ 1968;iii:21621.
              • 275  Sarkisov AK, Koromyslov G. Proposals for the Prevention and Control of Dermatophytoses Common to Man and Animals. WHO Dococument No. Zoon/83.62. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1993.

              Tinea faciei

              • 276  Gilgar RS, Tindall JP, Elson M. Lupus erythematosus‐like tinea of the face (tinea faciale). JAMA 1971;215:20914.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 277  Pravda DJ, Pugliese MM. Tinea faciei. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:2502.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 278  Safer LF, Lang PG, Demetree JW, et al. Tinea faciei coexistent with discoid lupus erythematosus. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:1212.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 279  Pernicario C, Peters MS. Tinea faciale mimicking seborrheic dermatitis in a patient with AIDS. N Engl J Med 1986;314:31516.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Tinea pedis

              • 280  Rothman S, Knox G, Windhorst D. Tinea pedis: a source of infection in the family. Arch Dermatol 1957;75:2701.Cross Ref link
              • 281  Gentles GC, Evans EGV. Foot infection in swimming baths. BMJ 1973;3:2602.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 282  Jones HE, Reinhardt JH, Rinaldi MG. A clinical, mycological and immunological survey of dermatophytes. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:618.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 283  English MP. Tinea pedis as a public health problem. Br J Dermatol 1969;81:7057.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 284  English MP. Trichophyton rubrum infection in families. BMJ 1959;i:7446.
              • 285  Hay RJ. Chronic dermatophyte infections. I. Clinical and mycological features. Br J Dermatol 1982;106:16.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 286  Hay RJ, Campbell CK, Wingfield R, et al. A comparative study of dermatophytosis in coal miners and dermatological outpatients. Br J Indust Med 1983;40:3535.
              • 287  Strauss JS, Kligman AM. An experimental study of the tinea pedis and onychomycosis of the foot. Arch Dermatol 1957;76:709.Cross Ref link
              • 288  Leyden JJ, Kligman AM. Interdigital athlete's foot: the interaction of dermatophytes and residual bacteria. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:146672.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 289  Pock‐Steen B. Persistent mycosis of the nails caused by Trichophyton violaceum. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1967;47:346.
              • 290  Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections. Mycopathologia 2008;166:33552.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 291  Gentles GC, Holmes JG. Foot ringworm in coal miners. Br J Indust Med 1957;14:229.
              • 292  English MP, Gibson MD. Studies in the epidemiology of tinea pedis. I and II. Tinea pedis in school children. BMJ 1959;i:14425, 1446–8.Cross Ref link
              • 293  Rogers D, Kilkenny M, Marks R. The descriptive epidemiology of tinea pedis in the community. Australas J Dermatol 1996;37:17884.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8961583
              • 294  Hope YM, Clayton YM, Hay RJ, et al. Foot infection in coal miners: a reassessment. Br J Dermatol 1985;112:40513.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 295  Howell SA, Clayton YM, Phan QC, et al. Tinea pedis: the relationship between symptoms and host characteristics. Microbiol Ecol Health Dis 1988;1:1318.Cross Ref link
              • 296  Rippon JW. Epidemiology and emerging patterns of dermatophyte species. In: Current Topics in Medical Mycology, Vol. 1. New York: Springer, 1985:20834.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 297  Blank H, Taplin D, Zaias N. Cutaneous Trichophyton mentagrophytes infection in Vietnam. Arch Dermatol 1969;99:13544.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Tinea manuum

              • 298  Marcussen PV. Mycotic infections of the hands. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1956;36:2728.
              • 299  Elmros T, Liden S. Hereditary palmoplantar keratoderma: incidence of dermatophyte infections and the results of treatment with retinoic acid. Acta Dermatol Venereol (Stockh) 1983;63:2547.

              Tinea cruris

              • 300  Rosman N. Infection with Trichophyton rubrum. Br J Dermatol 1966;78:20812.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 301  Blank F, Mann SJ. Trichophyton rubrum infection according to age, anatomical distribution and sex. Br J Dermatol 1975;92:1714.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 302  Foster KW, Ghannoum MA, Elewski BE. Epidemiologic surveillance of cutaneous fungal infection in the United States from 1999 to 2002. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;50:74852.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 303  La Touche CJ. Scrotal dermatophytosis. Br J Dermatol 1967;79:33944.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 304  Panconesi E, DiFonzo E. Treatment of dermatophytoses and pityriasis versicolor with itraconazole. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):S10911.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 305  Amer M, Taha M, Tossan Z, et al. The frequency of causative dermatophytes in Egypt. Int J Dermatol 1981;20:4314.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 306  Blank F, Mann SJ, Peak PA. Distribution of dermatophytes according to age, ethnic group and sex. Sabouraudia 1974;12:35261.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Onychomycosis caused by dermatophytes

              • 307  Baran R, Hay RJ, Haneke E, Tosti A. Onychomycosis: the Current Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Oxford: Taylor & Francis, 2006.Cross Ref link
              • 308  English MP. Nails and fungi. Br J Dermatol 1976;74:697701.Cross Ref link
              • 309  Alkiewicz J. Transverse net in the diagnosis of onychomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1947;58:3858.Cross Ref link
              • 310  Philpot CM, Shuttleworth D. Dermatophyte onychomycosis in children. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989;14:2035.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 311  Sowinski W. Trichophyton entrance sites in the nails of man. In: Drouhet E, ed. Proceedings of the Vth Congress of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology. Paris: Institut Pasteur, 1971:11112.
              • 312  English M, Atkinson R. An improved method for the isolation of fungi from onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol 1973;88:2736.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 313  Walshe MM, English MP. Fungi in nails. Br J Dermatol 1966;78:198207.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 314  Zaias N, Oertel I, Elliott DF. Fungi in toe nails. J Invest Dermatol 1969;53:1402.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 315  Hay RJ, Baran R. Onychomycosis: a proposed revision of the clinical classification. J Am Acad Dermatol 2011;65:121927.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21501889
              • 316  Davies RR. Mycological tests and onychomycosis. J Clin Pathol 1968;21:72930.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 317  Zaias N. Superficial white onychomycosis. Sabouraudia 1966;5:99103.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 318  Dompmartin D, Dompmartin A, Deluol AM, et al. Onychomycosis and AIDS. Int J Dermatol 1990;29:3379.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 319  Baran R, Badillet G. Primary onycholysis of the big toe nails: review of 133 cases. Br J Dermatol 1982;106:52931.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 320  Achten G, Wanet‐Rouard J. Onychomycosis in the laboratory. Mykosen 1978;21(Suppl. 1):1258.
              • 321  Midgley G, Moore MK. Nail infections. Dermatol Clin 1996;14:419.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 322  Binstock JM. Molecular biology techniques for identifying dermatophytes and their possible use in diagnosing onychomycosis in human toenail: a review. J Am Podiatric Med Assoc 2007;97:13444.Cross Ref link
              • 323  Roberts DT. Onychomycosis: current treatment and future challenges. Br J Dermatol 1999;141(Suppl. 56):14.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 324  Evans EG, Sigurgeirsson B. Double blind, randomised study of continuous terbinafine compared with intermittent itraconazole in treatment of toenail onychomycosis. The LION Study Group. BMJ 1999;318:10315.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 325  White MI, Clayton YM. The treatment of fungus and yeast infections of nails by the method of chemical removal. Clin Exp Dermatol 1982;7:2726.Cross Ref link
              • 326  Hay RJ, Roberts D, Richardson M, et al. The evaluation of bifonazole 12% and 40% urea paste in the management of onychomycosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1988;13:1647.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 327  Baran R, Feuilhade M, Datry A, et al. A randomized trial of amorolfine 5% solution nail lacquer combined with oral terbinafine compared with terbinafine alone in the treatment of dermatophytic toenail onychomycoses affecting the matrix region. Br J Dermatol 2000;142:117783.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Steroid‐modified tinea

              • 328  Faergemann J, Frederiksson T, Herczka O, et al. Tinea incognito as a source for an epidemic of Trichophyton violaceum infection in a dermatologic ward. Int J Dermatol 1983;22:3942.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 329  Ive FA, Marks R. Tinea incognito. BMJ 1968;iii:21621.
              • 330  Marks R, Dawber RPR. In situ microbiology of the stratum corneum. Arch Dermatol 1972;105:21621.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 331  Maor MH. Dermatophytosis confined to irradiated skin: a case report. Int J Radiol Oncol Biol Phys 1988;14:8256.Cross Ref link
              • 332  Gip L, Abelia J. Differential staining of fungi in clinical specimens using a fluorescent whitening agent (Blankophor). Mykosen 1987;30:214.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Dermatophytide reactions

              • 333  Kaaman T, Torssander J. Dermatophytid: a misdiagnosed entity. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1983;63:4048.
              • 334  Peck SM. Fungus antigens and their importance as sensitizers in the general population. Ann NY Acad Sci 1950;50:13625.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

              Superficial mycoses caused by Neoscytalidium species

              • 335  Campbell CK, Kurwa A, Abdel Aziz AHM, et al. Fungal infection of skin and nails by Hendersonula toruloidea. Br J Dermatol 1973;89:989.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 336  Gentles JC, Evans EGV. Infection of the feet and nails with Hendersonula toruloidea. Sabouraudia 1970;8:725.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 337  Machouart M, Menir P, Helenon R, et al. Scytalidium and scytalidiosis: what's new in 2012? J Mycol Med 2013;23:406.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 338  Gugnani HC, Nzelibe FK, Osunkwo IC. Onychomycosis due to Hendersonula toruloidea in Nigeria. J Med Vet Mycol 1986;24:23941.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 339  Hay RJ, Moore MK. Clinical features of superficial fungal infections caused by Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum. Br J Dermatol 1984;110:67783.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 340  Allison VY, Hay RJ, Campbell CK. Hendersonula toruloidea and Scytalidium hyalinum infections in Tobago. Br J Dermatol 1984;111:3712.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 341  Gugnani HC, Oyeka C. Foot infections caused by Hendersonula toruloidea in coal miners. J Med Vet Mycol 1989;27:16979.Cross Ref link
              • 342  Kombila M, Martz M, Gomez de Diaz M, et al. Hendersonula toruloidea as an agent of mycotic foot infection in Gabon. J Med Vet Mycol 1990;28:21523.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 343  Oyeka CA, Gugnani HC. Skin infections due to Hendersonula toruloidea, Scytalidium hyalinum, Fusarium solani and dermatophytes in cement factory workers. J Mycol Med 1992;2:197201.
              • 344  Ungpakorn R, Lohaprathan S, Reangchainam S. Prevalence of foot diseases in outpatients attending the Institute of Dermatology, Bangkok, Thailand. Clin Exp Dermatol 2004;29:8790.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 345  Jones SK, White JE, Jacobs PH, et al. Hendersonula toruloidea infection of the nails in Caucasians. Clin Exp Dermatol 1985;10:4447.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 346  Moore MK. The infection of human skin and nail by Scytalidium species. In: Borgers M, ed. Current Topics in Medical Mycology, Vol. 4. New York: Springer, 1991:142.
              • 347  Moore MK. Morphological and physiological studies of isolates of Hendersonula toruloidea Nattrass cultured from human skin and nail samples. J Med Vet Mycol 1988;26:2539.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 348  Morris‐Jones R, Youngchim S, Hextall JM, et al. Scytalidium dimidiatum causing recalcitrant subcutaneous lesions produces melanin. J Clin Micro 2004;42:378994.Cross Ref link

              Onychomycosis caused by other non‐dermatophyte moulds

              • 349  Midgley G, Moore MK, Cook C, Phan QG. Mycology of nail disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;31:S6874.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 350  Onsberg P. Scopulariopsis brevicaulis in nails. Dermatologica 1980;161:25964.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 351  Summerbell RC, Kane J, Krajden S. Onychomycosis, tinea pedis and tinea manuum caused by non‐dermatophytic filamentous fungi. Mycoses 1989;32:60919.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 352  Denning DW, Evans EVG, Kibbler CC, et al. Fungal nail disease: a guide to good practice. Report of a Working Group of the British Society for Medical Mycology. BMJ 1995;311:127781.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 353  Sigler L, Congly H. Toenail infection by Onychocola canadensis gen. et sp. nov. J Med Vet Mycol 1990;28:40517.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 354  Sigler L, Abbott SP, Woodgyer AJ. New records of nail and skin infection due to Onychocola canadensis and description of its teleomorph Arachnomyces nodosetosus sp. nov. J Med Vet Mycol 1994;32:27585.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 355  Gupta AK, Gregurek‐Novak T, Konnikov N. Itraconazole and terbinafine treatment of some non‐dermatophyte molds causing onychomycosis of the toes and a review of the literature. J Cut Med 2001;5:20610.
              • 356  Gupta AK, Simpson FC. New therapeutic options for onychomycosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012;13:113142.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
              • 357  Hanecke E. Fungal infections of the nail. Semin Dermatol 1991;10:4153.Pubmed link

              Candidosis

                Classification, Basic biology

                • 358  Odds FC. Candida and Candidosis. London: Baillière Tindall, 1988.
                • 359  Noble WC. Microbiology of Human Skin, 2nd edn. London: Lloyd‐Luke, 1980.
                • 360  Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, eds. Oral Candidosis. London: Wright, 1990.
                • 361  Kaufman RH, ed. Vulvovaginal candidiasis: a symposium. J Reprod Med 1986;31:63972.Pubmed link
                • 362  Gough DM, Warnock DW, Turner A, et al. Candidosis of the genital tract in non‐pregnant women. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1985;19:23746.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 363  Spellacy WN, Zaias N, Buhi WC, et al. Vaginal yeast growth and contraceptive practices. Obstet Gynecol 1971;38:3439.Pubmed link
                • 364  Mahieu LM, Van Gasse N, Wildemeersch D, et al. Number of sites of perinatal Candida colonization and neutropenia are associated with nosocomial candidemia in the neonatal intensive care unit patient. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2010;11:2405.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19794324
                • 365  Lynch PJ, Minkin W, Smith EB. Ecology of Candida albicans in candidiasis of the groin. Arch Dermatol 1969;99:15460.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 366  Krause W, Matheis H, Wulf K. Fungaemia and funguria after oral administration of Candida albicans. Lancet 1969;i:5989.Cross Ref link
                • 367  Warnock DW, Speller DCE, Milne JD, et al. Epidemiological investigation of patients with vulvovaginal candidosis: application of a resistogram method for strain differentiation of Candida albicans. Br J Vener Dis 1979;55:35761.Pubmed link
                • 368  Poulain D, Tronchin G, Lefebvre B, et al. Antigenic variability between Candida albicans blastospores isolated from healthy subjects and patients with Candida infection. Sabouraudia 1982;20:1737.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 369  Vargas KG, Joly S. Carriage frequency, intensity of carriage, and strains of oral yeast species vary in the progression to oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus‐positive individuals. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:34150.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 370  Burnie JP, Odds FC, Lee W, et al. Outbreak of systemic Candida albicans in an intensive care unit caused by cross infection. BMJ 1985;290:7468.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 371  Powderly WG, Robinson K, Keath EJ. Molecular epidemiology of recurrent oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus‐positive patients: evidence for two patterns of recurrence. J Infect Dis 1993;168:4636.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 372  Soll DER, Slutsky B, MacKenzie S, et al. Switching systems in Candida albicans and their possible roles in oral candidiasis. In: MacKenzie IC, Squier CA, Dabelsteen D, eds. Oral Mucosal Diseases: Biology, Etiology and Therapy. Denmark: Laegeforeningens‐Forlag, 1987:529.

                Pathophysiology

                • 373  Mayer FL, Wilson D, Hube B. Candida albicans pathogenicity mechanisms. Virulence 2013;4:11928.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 374  Soll DR. The regulation of cellular differentiation in the dimorphic yeast Candida albicans. Bioessays 1986;5:510.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 375  Blackwell CC, Thom SM, Weir DM, et al. Host–parasite interactions underlying non‐secretion of blood group antigens and susceptibility to infection by Candida albicans. In: Lark DL, ed. Protein Carbohydrate Interactions in Biological Systems. London: Academic, 1986:2313.
                • 376  Douglas LJ. Adhesion to surfaces. In: Rose AH, Harrison JS, eds. The Yeasts, Vol. 2. London: Academic, 1987:23980.
                • 377  MacCourtis J, Douglas LJ. Relationship between cell surface composition, adherence and virulence of Candida albicans. Infect Immun 1984;45:612.Pubmed link
                • 378  Saxena A, Calderone RA. Purification and characterisation of the extracellular C3d‐binding protein of Candida albicans. Infect Immun 1990;58:30914.Pubmed link
                • 379  Odds FC. Candida and Candidosis. London: Baillière Tindall, 1988.
                • 380  Gloor M, Geilhof A, Ronneberger G, et al. Biochemical and physiological parameters on the healthy skin surface of persons with candidal intertrigo and of persons with tinea cruris. Arch Dermatol Res 1976;257:20311.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 381  Auger P, Joly J. Étude de quelques facteurs de la pathogenese des infections Candida albicans. Sabouraudia 1975;13:26373.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 382  Knight L, Fletcher J. Growth of Candida albicans in saliva: stimulation by glucose associated with antibiotics, corticosteroids and diabetes mellitus. J Infect Dis 1971;123:3717.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 383  Kennedy MJ. Inhibition of Candida albicans by anaerobic oral flora of mice in vitro. Sabouraudia 1981;19:2058.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 384  Sobel JD, Myers P, Levison ME, et al. Comparison of bacterial and fungal adherence to vaginal exfoliated epithelial cells and human vaginal epithelial culture cells. Infect Immun 1982;35:697701.Pubmed link
                • 385  Tapper‐Jones LM, Aldred MJ, Walker DM, et al. Candidal infections and populations of Candida albicans in mouths of diabetics. J Clin Pathol 1981;34:70611.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 386  Ray TL, Wuepper KD. Experimental cutaneous candidiasis in rodents. J Invest Dermatol 1976;66:2933.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 387  Rebora A, Marples RM, Kligman AM. Experimental infection with Candida albicans. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:6973.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 388  Ganor S. Diseases sometimes associated with psoriasis. I. Candidosis. Dermatologica 1977;154:26872.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 389  Sohnle PG, Frank MM, Kirkpatrick CH. Mechanisms involved in elimination of organisms in experimental cutaneous Candida albicans infections in guinea pigs. J Immunol 1976;117:52330.Pubmed link
                • 390  Higgs JM, Wells RS. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: associated abnormalities of iron metabolism. Br J Dermatol 1972;86(Suppl.):88102.Cross Ref link
                • 391  Kirkpatrick CH. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001;20:197206.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 392  Halonen M, Eskelin P, Myhre AG, et al. AIRE mutations and human leukocyte antigen genotypes as determinants of the autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:256874.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 393  Lehrer RI. The fungicidal mechanisms of human monocytes. I. Evidence for myeloperoxidase linked and myeloperoxidase independent candidacidal mechanisms. J Clin Invest 1975;55:33846.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 394  Levitz SM, Diamond RD. Killing of Aspergillus fumigatus spores and Candida albicans yeast phase by iron–hydrogen peroxide cytotoxic system: comparison with the myeloperoxide halide system. Infect Immunol 1984;43:11002.
                • 395  Grappel SF, Calderone RA. Effect of antibodies on the respiration and morphology of Candida albicans. Sabouraudia 1976;14:5160.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 396  Wei XQ, Rogers H, Lewis MA, et al. The role of the IL‐12 cytokine family in directing T‐cell responses in oral candidosis. Clin Dev Immunol 2011, doi: 10.1155/2011/697340.Pubmed link
                • 397  Torssander J, Morfeldt‐Mauson L, Biberfeld G, et al. Oral Candida albicans in HIV infection. Scand J Infect 1987;189:2915.Cross Ref link
                • 398  Lee KW, Balish E. Systemic candidiasis in germ free, flora defined and conventional nude and thymus‐bearing mice. J Retic Endothel Soc 1981;29:717.
                • 399  Cech P, Lehrer RI. Heterogeneity of human neutrophil phagolysosomes: functional consequences for candidacidal activity. Blood 1984;64:90817.
                • 400  Selsted ME, Harwig SSL. Purification, primary structure and antimicrobial activities of a guinea pig neutrophil defensin. Infect Immunol 1987;55:22816.
                • 401  Torssander J, Morfeldt‐Manson L, Biberfeld G, et al. Oral Candida albicans in HIV infection. Scand J Infect Dis 1987;19:2915.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 402  Fetter A, Partisani M, Koenig H, et al. Asymptomatic oral Candida albicans carriage in HIV‐infection: frequency and predisposing factors. J Oral Pathol Med 1993;22:579.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 403  Cassone A, Cauda R. Candida and candidiasis in HIV‐infected patients: where commensalism, opportunistic behavior and frank pathogenicity lose their borders. AIDS 2012;26:145772.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22472853
                • 404  Badri M, Maartens G, Wood R. Predictors and prognostic value of oral hairy leukoplakia and oral candidiasis in South African HIV‐infected patients. S Afr Dent J 2001;56:5926.
                • 405  Lin RY, Goodhart P. The role of oral candidiasis in survival and hospitalization patterns: analysis of an inner city hospital immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome registry. Am J Med Sci 1993;306:34553.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                Identification

                • 406  Chandler FW, Watts JC. Pathologic Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. Chicago: ASCP, 1987.
                • 407  Odds FC. Candida and Candidosis. London: Baillière Tindall, 1988.
                • 408  Aronson IK, Soltani K. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: a review. Mycopathologia 1976;60:1725.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 409  Cawson RA. Leukoplakia and oral cancer. J R Soc Med 1969;62:61014.

                Management

                • 410  Edwards JE. Candida species. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th edn. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2000:265674.
                • 411  Clayton YM, Connor BL. Comparison of clotrimazole cream, Whitfield's ointment and nystatin ointment for the topical treatment of ringworm infections, pityriasis versicolor, erythrasma and candidiasis. Br J Dermatol 1973;89:297303.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 412  Grant SM, Clissold SP. Fluconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 1990;39:877916.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 413  Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 1989;37:31044.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 414  Ellepola AN, Samaranayake LP. Oral candidal infections and antimycotics. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2000;11:17298.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 415  Detels R, Tarwater P, Phair JP, et al. Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapies on the incidence of opportunistic infections before and after AIDS diagnosis. AIDS 2001;15:34755.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 416  Dupont B, Drouhet E. Fluconazole in the management of oropharyngeal candidosis in a predominantly HIV positive group of patients. J Med Vet Mycol 1988;26:6772.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 417  Hay RJ, Clayton YM. Fluconazole in the management of patients with chronic mucocutaneous candidosis. Br J Dermatol 1988;119:6834.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 418  Hay RJ, Clayton YM. Treatment of chronic dermatophytosis and chronic oral candidosis with itraconazole. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):11418.Cross Ref link
                • 419  Dreizen S. Oral candidiasis. Am J Med 1984;30:2833.
                • 420  Budtz‐Jorgensen E. The significance of Candida albicans in denture stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res 1974;82:15190.Pubmed link
                • 421  Holmstrup P, Bessermann M. Clinical, therapeutic and pathogenic aspects of chronic oral multifocal candidiasis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983;56:38895.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                Candidosis of the oral mucous membranes

                • 422  Samaranayake LP, Yaacob HB. Classification of oral candidosis. In: Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, eds. Oral Candidosis. London: Wright, 1990:1521.
                • 423  Dupont B, Drouhet E. Fluconazole in the management of oropharyngeal candidosis in a predominantly HIV positive group of patients. J Med Vet Mycol 1988;26:6772.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 424  Cawson RA. Thrush in adult outpatients. Dent Pract Dent Rec 1965;15:3614.
                • 425  Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, eds. Oral Candidosis. London: Wright, 1990.
                • 426  Khongkunthian P, Grote M, Isaratanan W. Oral manifestations in 45 HIV‐positive children from northern Thailand. J Oral Pathol Med 2001;30:54952.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 427  Michaud M, Baehner RL, Bixler D, et al. Oral manifestations of acute leukaemia in children. J Am Dent Assoc 1977;95:114550.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 428  Pindborg JJ. Classification of oral lesions associated with HIV infection. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1989;67:2925.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 429  Klein RS, Harris CA, Small CB, et al. Oral candidiasis in high‐risk patients as the initial manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1984;311:3547.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 430  Tavitian A, Raufman JP, Rosenthal LE. Oral candidiasis as a marker for esophageal candidiasis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1986;104:545.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 431  Dreizen S. Oral candidiasis. Am J Med 1984;30:2833.
                • 432  Budtz‐Jorgensen E. The significance of Candida albicans in denture stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res 1974;82:15190.Pubmed link
                • 433  Holmstrup P, Bessermann M. Clinical, therapeutic and pathogenic aspects of chronic oral multifocal candidiasis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983;56:38895.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 434  Arendorf TM, Walker DM, Kingdom RJ, et al. Tobacco smoking and denture wearing in oral candidal leukoplakia. Br Dent J 1983;155:3403.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 435  Cawson RA. Leukoplakia and oral cancer. J R Soc Med 1969;62:61014.
                • 436  Field EA, Field JK, Martin MV. Does Candida have a role in oral epithelial neoplasia? J Med Vet Mycol 1989;27:27794.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 437  Ohman SC, Dahlen G, Moller A, et al. Angular cheilitis: a clinical and microbial study. J Oral Pathol 1985;15:21317.Cross Ref link
                • 438  Cooke BED. Median rhomboid glossitis: candidiasis and not a developmental anomaly. Br J Dermatol 1975;93:399405.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                Candidosis of the skin and genital mucous membranes

                • 439  Odds FC. Genital candidosis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1982;7:34354.Cross Ref link
                • 440  Rosen T. Cutaneous candidiasis. In: Bodey GP, Fainstein V, eds. Candidiasis. New York: Raven, 1985:22740.
                • 441  Sobel JD. Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. N Engl J Med 1986;315:14558.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 442  El Din SS, Reynolds MT, Ashbee HR, et al. An investigation into the pathogenesis of vulvo‐vaginal candidosis. Sex Transm Inf 2001;77:17983.Cross Ref link
                • 443  De Luca A, Carvalho A, Cunha C, et al. IL‐22 and IDO1 affect immunity and tolerance to murine and human vaginal candidiasis. PLOS Pathog .http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/238535972013:e1003486
                • 444  Odds FC. Candida and Candidosis. London: Baillière Tindall, 1988.
                • 445  Rebore A, Leyden JJ. Napkin (diaper) dermatitis and gastro‐intestinal carriage of Candida albicans. Br J Dermatol 1981;105:5515.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 446  Budtz‐Jorgensen E. The significance of Candida albicans in denture stomatitis. Scand J Dent Res 1974;82:15190.Pubmed link
                • 447  Keiichi U, Nakayasu K, Takaishi Y. Kaposi sarcoma‐like granuloma on diaper dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1973;107:6057.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 448  Tappeiner J, Pfleger L. Granuloma gluteale infantum. Hautarzt 1971;22:3838.Pubmed link

                Candidosis of the nail and paronychium

                • 449  Frain‐Bell W. Chronic paronychia: short review of 590 cases. Trans St John's Hosp Dermatol Soc 1957;38:2930.
                • 450  Stone OJ, Mullins JF. Chronic paronychia: microbiology and histopathology. Arch Dermatol 1962;86:3247.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 451  Ganor S. Diseases sometimes associated with psoriasis. I. Candidosis. Dermatologica 1977;154:26872.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 452  Zaias N. Onychomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1972;105:2637.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 453  Hay RJ, Baran R, Moore MK, et al. Candida onychomycosis: an evaluation of the role of Candida species in nail disease. Br J Dermatol 1988;118:4758.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 454  Hay RJ, Clayton YM. Treatment of chronic dermatophytosis and chronic oral candidosis with itraconazole. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):11418.Cross Ref link
                • 455  Whyte RK, De Hussain Z, Sa DJ. Antenatal infections with Candida species. Arch Dis Child 1982;57:52835.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                • 456  Hood IC, De Browning D, Sa DJ, et al. Fetal inflammatory responses in second trimester candidal chorioamnionitis. Early Hum Dev 1985;11:110.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                Other Candida diseases

                  Candida allergy

                  • 457  Odds FC. Candida and Candidosis. London: Baillière Tindall, 1988.

                  Chronic mucocutaneous candidosis

                  • 458  Wells RS. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: a clinical classification. Proc R Soc Med 1973;66:8012.Pubmed link
                  • 459  Higgs JM, Wells RS. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis associated with abnormalities of iron metabolism. Br J Dermatol 1972;86(Suppl. 8):88102.Cross Ref link
                  • 460  Collins SM, Dominguez M, Ilmarinen T, Costigan C, Irvine AD. Dermatological manifestations of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy‐candidiasis‐ectodermal dystrophy syndrome. Br J Dermatol 2006;154:108893.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 461  Kirkpatrick CH, Rich RB, Bennet JE. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: model building in cellular immunology. Ann Intern Med 1971;74:95578.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 462  Meager A, Visvalingam K, Peterson P, et al. Anti‐interferon autoantibodies in autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1. PLOS Med 2006;3:e289.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 463  Wells RS, Higgs JM, MacDonald D, et al. Familial chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. J Med Genet 1972;9:6423.Cross Ref link
                  • 464  Sams WM, Jorizzo JL, Snyderman R, et al. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: immunological studies of three generations of a single family. Am J Med 1979;67:94859.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 465  Perheentupa J. Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2006;91:284350.Cross Ref link
                  • 466  Meriluoto T, Halonen M, Pelto‐Huikko M, et al. The autoimmune regulator: a key toward understanding the molecular pathogenesis of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy. Keio J Med 2001;50:22539.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 467  Howanitz N, Nordlund JL, Lerner AB, et al. Autoantibodies to melanocytes: occurrence in patients with vitiligo and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Arch Dermatol 1981;117:7058.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 468  Ahonen P, Koskimies S, Lokki ML, et al. The expression of autoimmune polyglandular disease type 1 appears associated with several HLA‐A antigens but not with HLA‐DR. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;66:11527.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 469  Coleman R, Hay RJ. Chronic mucocutaneous candidosis associated with hypothyroidism: a distinct syndrome. Br J Dermatol 1997;136:249.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 470  Van de Veerdonk FL, Plantinga TS, Hoischen A, et al. STAT1 mutations in autosomal dominant chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2011;365:5461.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 471  Montes LF, Carter RE, Moreland N, et al. Generalized cutaneous candidiasis associated with diffuse myopathy and thymoma. JAMA 1968;204:3514.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 472  Rycroft RJG, Vadimarrson H, Bannister LH, et al. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis of late onset, thymoma and myopathy: report of 4 cases. Clin Exp Dermatol 1976;1:5974.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 473  San Filippo J. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis associated with malignant thymoma and systemic lupus erythematosus with hypergammaglobulinemia: a case report and literature review. Cutis 2006;78:5760.Pubmed link
                  • 474  Glocker EO, Hennigs A, Nabavi M, et al. A homozygous CARD9 mutation in a family with susceptibility to fungal infections. N Engl J Med 2009;361:172735.Cross Ref linkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19864672
                  • 475  Durandy A, Fischer A, Le Deist F, et al. Mannan specific and mannan induced T‐cell suppressive activity in patients with chronic mucocutaneous candidosis. J Clin Immunol 1987;7:40010.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 476  Eyerich K, Eyerich S, Hiller J, Behrendt H, Traidl‐Hoffmann C. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, from bench to bedside. Eur J Dermatol 2010;20:2605.Pubmed link
                  • 477  Masi M, De Vinci C, Baricordi OR. Transfer factor in chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Biotherapy 1996:9:97103.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                  • 478  Levy RL, Huang SW, Bach ML, et al. Thymic transplantation in a case of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Lancet 1971;ii:898900.Cross Ref link

                  Subcutaneous mycoses

                    Identification

                    • 479  Chandler FW, Watts JC. Pathologic Diagnosis of Fungal Infection. Chicago: ASPC, 1987.
                    • 480  Salzfelder K. Atlas of Fungal Pathology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1990.
                    • 481  Carol A. Kauffman, Peter G. Pappas, Jack D. Sobel Essentials of Clinical Mycology. New York: Springer, 2011.Cross Ref link
                    • 482  Anaissie EJ, McGinnis MR, Pfaller MA, eds. Clinical Mycology. Amsterdam: Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier 2009.

                    Sporotrichosis

                    • 483  López‐Romero E, Reyes‐Montes MR, Pérez‐Torres A, et al. Sporothrix schenckii complex and sporotrichosis, an emerging health problem. Future Microbiol 2011;6:85102.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 484  Ramos‐e‐Silva M, Vasconcelos C, Carneiro S, Cestari T. Sporotrichosis. Clin Dermatol 2007;25:1817.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 485  Mata‐Essayag S, Delgado A, Colella MT, et al. Epidemiology of sporotrichosis in Venezuela. Int J Dermatol 2013;52:97480.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 486  Sivagnanam S, Bannan AM, Chen SC, et al. Sporotrichosis (Sporothrix schenckii infection) in the New South Wales mid‐north coast, 2000–2010. Med J Aust 2012;196:58890.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 487  Findlay GH. The epidemiology of sporotrichosis in the Transvaal. Sabouraudia 1970;6:2316.
                    • 488  Powell KE, Taylor A, Phillips BJ, et al. Cutaneous sporotrichosis in forestry workers: epidemic due to contaminated sphagnum moss. JAMA 1978;240:2328.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 489  Bustamante B, Campos PE. Endemic sporotrichosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001;14:1459.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 490  Da Rosa AC, Scroferneker ML, Vettorato R, et al. Epidemiology of sporotrichosis: a study of 304 cases in Brazil. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005;52:4519.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 491  Rodriguez Toro G. El cuerpo asteroide de la esporotricosis: especifidad y diferenciacion de otras formas asteroides. Biomedica 1985;5:1123.Cross Ref link
                    • 492  Brand FA, Van Niekerk V. An atypical strain of Sporothrix from South Africa. J Pathol Bacteriol 1968;96:3944.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 493  Itoh M, Okamoto S, Kanya H. Survey of 260 cases of sporotrichosis. Dermatologica 1986;172:20313.Cross Ref link
                    • 494  Fetter BF, Tindall JP. Cutaneous sporotrichosis: clinical study of nine cases utilizing an improved technique for demonstration. Arch Pathol 1964;78:61317.Pubmed link
                    • 495  Velasco O, Gonzalez Ochoa A. Esporotricosis en individuos con esporotricina positiva previa. Rev Invest Salud Publica 1971;31:535.Pubmed link
                    • 496  Kwong‐Chung KI. Comparison of isolates of Sporothrix schenckii obtained from fixed cutaneous lesions with isolates from other types of lesions. J Infect Dis 1979;139:42231.
                    • 497  Brian M, Strom R. Multiarticular sporotrichosis. JAMA 1978;240:5567.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 498  Bibler MR, Luber HJ, Glueck HI, et al. Disseminated sporotrichosis in a patient with HIV infection after treatment for acquired factor VIII inhibitor. JAMA 1986;256:31256.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 499  Kaplan W, Kraft DE. Demonstration of pathogenic fungi in formalin fixed tissue by immunofluorescence. Am J Clin Pathol 1969;52:42032.Pubmed link
                    • 500  Bargman H. Sporotrichosis of the skin with spontaneous cure. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:2612.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 501  Restrepo A, Robledo A, Gomez I, et al. Itraconazole therapy in lymphangitic and cutaneous sporotrichosis. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:41317.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 502  Kauffman CA. Sporotrichosis. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:2316.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Mycetoma

                    • 503  Fahal AH. Mycetoma: a thorn in the flesh. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004;98:311.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 504  Ahmed A, Adelmann D, Fahal A, et al. Environmental occurrence of Madurella mycetomatis, the major agent of human eumycetoma in Sudan. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:10316.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 505  Van Belkum A, Fahal A, van de Sande WW. Mycetoma caused by Madurella mycetomatis: a completely neglected medico‐social dilemma. Adv Exp Med Biol 2013;764:17989.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 506  Mariat F, Destombes P, Segretain G. The mycetomas: clinical features, pathology, etiology and epidemiology. Contrib Microbiol Immunol 1977;4:139.Pubmed link
                    • 507  Lavalle P. Micetomas: la experiencia mexicana. Problemas actuales. In: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Mycetomas. Taxco, 1987:6673.
                    • 508  Tight RR, Bartlett MS. Actinomycetoma in the United States. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3:113950.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 509  Hay RJ, Mackenzie DW. Mycetoma (Madura foot) in the United Kingdom: a survey of forty‐four cases. Clin Exp Dermatol 1983;8:55363.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 510  Mahmoud NA, Fahal AH, van de Sande WW. The association between the interleukin‐10 cytokine and CC chemokine ligand 5 polymorphisms and mycetoma granuloma formation. Med Mycol 2013;51:52733.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 511  Findlay GH, Vismer HF. Black grain mycetoma: a study of the chemistry, formation and significance of the tissue grain in Madurella mycetomi infection. Br J Dermatol 1974;91:297303.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 512  Wethered DB, Markey MA, Hay RJ, et al. Ultrastructural and immunogenic changes in the formation of mycetoma grains. J Med Vet Mycol 1986;25:3946.Cross Ref link
                    • 513  Mahgoub ES, Murray IG. Mycetoma. London: Heinemann Medical, 1973.
                    • 514  Zaias N. Mycetoma. Arch Dermatol 1969;99:21525.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 515  Gumaa SA, Mahgoub ES, El Sid MA. Mycetoma of the head and neck. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:594600.Pubmed link
                    • 516  Palestine RF, Rogers RS. Diagnosis and treatment of mycetoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1982;6:10711.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 517  Abd El, Bagi ME. New radiographic classification of bone involvement in pedal mycetoma. Am J Roentgenol 2003;180:6658.Cross Ref link
                    • 518  Sarris I, Berendt AR, Athanasous N, Ostlere SJ. MRI of mycetoma of the foot: two cases demonstrating the dot‐in‐circle sign. Skeletal Radiol 2003;32:17983.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 519  El Hassan AM, Mahgoub ES. Lymph‐node involvement in mycetoma. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1972;66:1659.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 520  Czechowski J, Nork M, Haas D, et al. MR and other imaging methods in the investigation of mycetomas. Acta Radiol 2001;42:246.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 521  Yera H, Bougnoux ME, Jeanrot C, et al. Mycetoma of the foot caused by Fusarium solani: identification of the etiologic agent by DNA sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 2004;41:18058.Cross Ref link
                    • 522  Mahgoub ES. Medical management of mycetoma. WHO Bull 1976;54:30310.
                    • 523  Lacroix C, de Kerviler E, Morel P, et al. Madurella mycetomatis mycetoma treated successfully with oral voriconazole. Br J Dermatol 2005;152:10678.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Chromoblastomycosis

                    • 524  López Martínez R, Méndez Tovar LJ. Chromoblastomycosis. Clin Dermatol 2007;25:18894.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 525  Carrion AL. Chromoblastomycosis and related infections. Int J Dermatol 1975;14:2732.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 526  Banks IS, Palmieri JR, Lanoie L, et al. Chromomycosis in Zaire. Int J Dermatol 1985;24:3027.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 527  Silva JP, de Souza W, Rozental S. Chromoblastomycosis: a retrospective study of 325 cases on Amazonic Region (Brazil). Mycopathologia 1999;143:1715.Cross Ref link
                    • 528  Gezuele E, Mackinnon JE, Conti‐Diaz IA. The frequent isolation of Phialophora verrucosa and Phialophora pedrosoi from natural sources. Sabouraudia 1972;10:26673.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 529  McGinnis MR. Chromoblastomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis: new concepts, diagnosis and mycology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:116.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 530  Minotto R, Bernardi CD, Mallmann LF, et al. Chromoblastomycosis: a review of 100 cases in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:58592.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 531  Avelar‐Pires C, Simoes‐Quaresma JA, Moraes‐de Macedo GM, et al. Revisiting the clinical and histopathological aspects of patients with chromoblastomycosis from the Brazilian Amazon region. Arch Med Res 2013;44:3026.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 532  Batres E, Wolf JE, Rudolph AH, et al. Transepithelial elimination of cutaneous chromomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:12312.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 533  Goette DK, Robertson D. Transepithelial elimination in chromomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1984;120:4001.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 534  Kumarasinghe SP, Kumarasinghe MP. Itraconazole pulse therapy in chromoblastomycosis. Eur J Dermatol 2000;10:2202.Pubmed link
                    • 535  Yang YP, Li W, Huang WM, et al. Chromoblastomycosis caused by Fonsecaea: clinicopathology, susceptibility and molecular identification of seven consecutive cases in southern China. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013;19:10238.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 536  Lopez CF, Alvarenga RJ, Cisalpina EO, et al. Six years' experience in treatment of chromomycosis with 5‐fluorocytosine. Int J Dermatol 1978;17:41418.Pubmed link
                    • 537  Tagami H, Ginoza M, Imaizumi S, et al. Successful treatment of chromomycosis with topical heat therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984;10:61519.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Phaeohyphomycosis

                    • 538  Chandler FW, Ajello L, Kaplan W. A Colour Atlas and Text Book of the Histopathology of Mycotic Diseases. London: Wolfe, 1980:928.
                    • 539  Rinaldi MR. Phaeohyphomycosis. Dermatol Clin 1996;14:14753.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 540  Isa‐Isa R, García C, Isa M, et al. Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis (mycotic cyst). Clin Dermatol 2012;30:42531.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Lobomycosis

                    • 541  Paniz‐Mondolfi AE, Reyes Jaimes O, Dávila Jones L. Lobomycosis in Venezuela. Int J Dermatol 2007;46:1805.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 542  Talhari S, Talhari C. Lobomycosis. Clin Dermatol 2012;30:4204.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 543  Reif JS, Schaefer AM, Bossart GD. Lobomycosis: risk of zoonotic transmission from dolphins to humans. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2013;13:68993.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 544  Taborda PR, Taborda VA, McGinnis MR. Lacazia loboi gen. nov., comb. nov., the etiologic agent of lobomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:20313.Pubmed link

                    Rhinosporidiosis

                    • 545  Arseculeratne SN. Rhinosporidiosis: what is the cause? Curr Opin Infect Dis 2005;18:11318.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 546  Owor R, Wamukota WM. Rhinosporidiosis in Uganda: a review of 51 cases. East Afr Med J 1978;55:5826.Pubmed link
                    • 547  Lasser A, Smith HW. Rhinosporidiosis. Arch Otolaryngol 1976;102:30812.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 548  Christian EC, Kovi J. Three cases of rhinosporidiosis in Ghana. Ghana Med J 1966;5:634.
                    • 549  Chitravel V, Sundarum BM, Subramanian S, et al. Recurrent rhinosporidiosis in man: case reports. Mycopathologia 1981;73:7982.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 550  Vanbreuseghem R. Ultrastructure of Rhinosporidium seeberi. Int J Dermatol 1973;12:208.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Subcutaneous mycosis due to Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus

                    • 551  Prabhu RM, Patel R. Mucormycosis and entomophthoromycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004;10(Suppl. 1):3147.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 552  Martinson FD. Clinical, epidemiological and therapeutic aspects of entomophthromycosis. Ann Soc Belge Med Trop 1972;52:32942.
                    • 553  Andrade ZA, Paula LA, Sherlock A. Nasal granuloma caused by Entomophthora coronata. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1967;16:313.Pubmed link
                    • 554  Gilbert EF, Khoury GH, Pore RS. Histopathological identification of Entomophthora phycomycosis. Arch Pathol 1970;90:5837.Pubmed link
                    • 555  Stratsmaa BR, Zimmerman LE, Gass JDM. Phycomycosis: a clinicopathologic study of fifty‐one cases. Lab Invest 1962;11:96385.Pubmed link
                    • 556  Leopairut J, Larbcharoensub N, Cheewaruangroj W, et al. Rhinofacial entomophthoramycosis; a case series and review of the literature. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2010;41:92835.Pubmed link
                    • 557  Gugnani HC. A review of zygomycosis due to Basidiobolus ranarum. Eur J Epidemiol 1999;15:9239.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 558  Gordon CL, Whiting S, Haran G, et al. Entomophthoromycosis caused by Basidiobolus ranarum in tropical northern Australia. Pathology 2012;44:3759.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 559  Herstoff JK, Bogarrs H, MacDonald CJ. Rhinophycomycosis entomophthorae. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:16748.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 560  Busapakum R, Youngchaiyud U, Sriumpai S, et al. Disseminated infection with Conidiobolus incongruens. Sabouraudia 1983;21:32330.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                    • 561  Segura JJ, Gionzale K, Berrocal J, et al. Rhinoentomophthoromycosis: report of the first two cases observed in Costa Rica (Central America) and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1981;30:107884.Pubmed link
                    • 562  Tan DC, Hsu LY, Koh LP, et al. Severe conidiobolomycosis complicating induction chemotherapy in a patient with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2005;129:4479.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                    Systemic mycoses

                      Histoplasmosis

                      • 563  Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007;20:11532.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 564  Kasuga T, White TJ, Koenig G, et al. Phylogeography of the fungal pathogen. Histoplasma capsulatum. Mol Ecol 2003;12:3383401.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 565  Edwards LB, Acquaviva FA, Livesay VT, et al. An atlas of sensitivity to tuberculin, PPD‐B and histoplasmin in the United States. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969;99(Suppl.):1132.Pubmed link
                      • 566  Goodwin RA, Loyd JE, DesPrez RM. Histoplasmosis in normal hosts. Medicine 1981;60:23166.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 567  Barton EN, Roberts L, Ince WE, et al. Cutaneous histoplasmosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a report of three cases from Trinidad. Trop Geogr Med 1988;40:1537.Pubmed link
                      • 568  Kalter CD, Tschen JA, Klima M. Maculopapular rash in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Dermatol 1985;121:14547.
                      • 569  Goodwin RA, Shapiro JL, Thurman GH, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis. Medicine 1980;59:133.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 570  Toth BB, Frame RR. Oral histoplasmosis: diagnostic complications and treatment. Oral Surg 1983;55:597600.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 571  Chang P, Rodas C. Skin lesions in histoplasmosis. Clin Dermatol 2012;30:5928.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 572  Negroni R. Manifestations cutaneas de la histoplasmose. Rev Argent Microbiol 1978;1:516.
                      • 573  Wheat LJ, Slama TG, Norton JA, et al. Histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Med 1985;78:20310.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 574  Wilson DA, Nguyen CL, Tytle TL, et al. Sonography of the adrenal glands in chronic disseminated histoplasmosis. J Ultrasound Med 1986;5:6973.Pubmed link
                      • 575  Johnson PC, Khardori N, Najjar AF, et al. Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 1988;85:1528.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 576  Drouhet E. African histoplasmosis. In: Hay RJ, ed. Baillières Clinical Tropical Medicine and Communicable Diseases, Vol. 4. Tropical Fungal Infections. London: Baillière Tindall, 1989:2214.
                      • 577  Williams AO, Lawson EA, Lucas AO. African histoplasmosis due to Histoplasma duboisii. Arch Pathol 1971;92:30618.Pubmed link
                      • 578  Lucas AO. Cutaneous manifestations of African histoplasmosis. Br J Dermatol 1970;82:4354.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 579  Cockshott WP, Lucas AG. Radiological findings in Histoplasma duboisii infections. Br J Radiol 1964;37:65360.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 580  Davies SF. Serodiagnosis of histoplasmosis. Semin Respir Infect 1986;1:915.Pubmed link
                      • 581  Wheat LJ, Kohler RB, Tewari RP. Diagnosis of disseminated histoplasmosis by detection of Histoplasma capsulatum antigen in serum and urine specimens. N Engl J Med 1986;314:838.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 582  Negroni R, Palmieri O, Koren F, et al. Oral treatment of paracoccidioidomycosis and histoplasmosis with itraconazole in humans. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):4750.Cross Ref link
                      • 583  Velho GC, Cabral JM, Massa A. African histoplasmosis: therapeutic efficacy of itraconazole. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1998;10:7780.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Blastomycosis

                      • 584  Bradsher RW, Chapman SW, Pappas PG. Blastomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003;17:2140.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 585  Emerson PA, Higgins E, Branfoot A. North American blastomycosis in Africans. Br J Dis Chest 1984;78:28691.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 586  Sudman MS, Kaplan W. Antigenic relationship between American and African isolates of Blastomyces dermatitidis as determined by immuno‐fluorescence. Appl Microbiol 1974;27:4969.Pubmed link
                      • 587  Kingston M, El‐Mishad MM, Ashraf AM. Blastomycosis in Saudia Arabia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980;29:4646.Pubmed link
                      • 588  Randhawa HS, Khan ZV, Gaur SN. Blastomyces dermatitidis in India: first report of its isolation from clinical material. Sabouraudia 1983;21:21521.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 589  Klein BS, Vergeront JM, Disalvo AF, et al. Two outbreaks of blastomycosis along rivers in Wisconsin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:13338.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 590  Klein BS, Vergeront JM, Weeks RJ, et al. Isolation of Blastomyces dermatitidis in soil associated with a large outbreak of blastomycosis in Wisconsin. N Engl J Med 1986;314:52934.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 591  Sarosi GA, Davies F. Blastomycosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979;120:91138.Pubmed link
                      • 592  Mason AR, Cortes GY, Cook J, et al. Cutaneous blastomycosis: a diagnostic challenge. Int J Dermatol 2008;47:82430.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 593  Domer JE. Blastomyces dermatitidis. In: Szaniszlo PJ, ed. Fungal Dimorphism. New York: Plenum, 1985:4651.
                      • 594  Sarosi GA, Davies SF, Philips JR. Self‐limited blastomycosis: a report of 39 cases. Semin Respir Infect 1986;1:404.Pubmed link
                      • 595  Recht LD, Davies SF, Eckman MR, et al. Blastomycosis in immunosuppressed patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;125:35962.Pubmed link
                      • 596  Witorsch P, Utz JP. North American blastomycosis: a study of 40 patients. Medicine 1968;47:169200.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 597  Chapman SW, Dismukes WE, Prioa LA, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:180112.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 598  MacManus EJ, Jones JM. The use of ketoconazole in the treatment of blastomycosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:1413.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Coccidioidomycosis

                      • 599  Crum NF, Lederman ER, Stafford CM, et al. Coccidioidomycosis: a descriptive survey of a reemerging disease. Clinical characteristics and current controversies. Medicine 2004;83:14975.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 600  Fisher MC, Koenig GL, White TJ, Taylor JV. Molecular and phenotypic description of Coccidioides posadasii sp nov., previously recognized as the non‐Californian population of Coccidioides immitis. Mycologia 2002;94:7384.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 601  Egeberg RO, Ely AF. Coccidioides immitis in the soil of the southern San Joaquin valley. Am J Med Sci 1956;23:1516.Cross Ref link
                      • 602  Chang A, Tung RC, McGillis TS, et al. Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003;49:9449.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 603  Ganer A, Arathoon E, Stevens DA. Initial experience in therapy for progressive mycoses with itraconazole, the first clinically studied triazole. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9(Suppl. 1):S7786.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 604  Deresinski SC, Stevens DA. Coccidioidomycosis in compromised hosts. Medicine 1974;54:489500.
                      • 605  Bouza E, Dreyer JS, Hewitt WL, et al. Coccidioidal meningitis: an analysis of thirty one cases and review of the literature. Medicine 1981;60:13944.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 606  Bronniman DA, Adam RD, Galgiani JN, et al. Coccidioidomycosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:3739.Cross Ref link
                      • 607  Standard PG, Kaufman L. Immunological procedure for the rapid and specific identification of Coccidioides immitis cultures. J Clin Microbiol 1977;5:14953.Pubmed link
                      • 608  Sun SH, Huppert M, Vukovich KR. Rapid in vitro conversion and identification of Coccidioides immitis. J Clin Microbiol 1976;3:186200.Pubmed link
                      • 609  Gifford J, Catanzaro A. A comparison of coccidioidin and spherulin skin testing in the diagnosis of coccidioidomycosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981;124:4404.Pubmed link
                      • 610  Cox RA, Vivas JR, Gross R, et al. In vivo and in vitro cell mediated responses in coccidioidomycosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976;114:93742.Pubmed link
                      • 611  Smith JA, Riddell J, 4th, Kauffman CA. Cutaneous manifestations of endemic mycoses. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2013;15:4409.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 612  Winn WA. Coccidioidomycosis and amphotericin B. Med Clin North Am 1963;47:113148.Pubmed link

                      Paracoccidioidomycosis

                      • 613  Visbal G, San‐Blas G, Murgich J, Franco H. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, paracoccidioidomycosis, and antifungal antibiotics. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 2005;5:21126.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 614  Greer DL, Restrepo A. The epidemiology of paracoccidioidomycosis. In: Al Doory E, ed. The Epidemiology of Human Mycotic Diseases. Springfield, VA: Thomas, 1975:11741.
                      • 615  Restrepo A, Salazar ME, Cano LE, et al. Estrogens inhibit mycelium to yeast transformation in the fungus P. brasiliensis: implications for resistance of females to paracoccidioidomycosis. Infect Immunol 1984;46:34653.
                      • 616  Simoes LB, Marques SA, Bagagli E. Distribution of paracoccidioidomycosis: determination of ecologic correlates through spatial analyses. Med Mycol 2004;42:51723.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 617  Franco MF. Host–parasite relationship in paracoccidioidomycosis. J Med Vet Mycol 1978;25:518.Cross Ref link
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                      Infections caused by Talaromyces marneffei

                      • 623  Kawila R, Chaiwarith R, Supparatpinyo K. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of penicilliosis marneffei among patients with and without HIV infection in northern Thailand: a retrospective study. BMC Infect Dis 2013;13:464.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 624  Liyan X, Changming L, Xianyi Z, et al. Fifteen cases of penicilliosis in Guangdong, China. Mycopathologia 2004;158:1515.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
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                      Cryptococcosis

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                      • 630  Franzot SP, Salkin IF, Casadevall A. Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii: separate varietal status for Cryptococcus neoformans serotype A isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:83840.Pubmed link
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                      • 632  Drouhet E, Destombes P, Carrizales D. Cryptococcose cutanée: confrontations histologiques et mycologiques. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syph 1970;77:73541.
                      • 633  Rook A, Woods B. Cutaneous cryptococcosis. Br J Dermatol 1962;74:439.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 634  Gauder JP. Cryptococcal cellulitis. JAMA 1978;237:6723.Cross Ref link
                      • 635  Sarosi GA, Silberfarb PM, Tosh FE. Cutaneous cryptococcosis. Arch Dermatol 1971;104:13.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 636  Schupbach CW, Wheeler CE, Briggaman RA, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of disseminated cryptococcosis. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:173440.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 637  Kovacs JA, Kovacs AA, Polis M, et al. Cryptococcosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:5338.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 638  Segal BH, Steinbach WJ. Combination antifungals: an update. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2007;5:88392.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 639  Aberg JA, Price RW, Heeren DM, et al. A pilot study of the discontinuation of antifungal therapy for disseminated cryptococcal disease in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, following immunologic response to antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2002;185:117982.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Systemic candidosis

                      • 640  Bodey G, Luna M. Skin lesions associated with disseminated candidiasis. JAMA 1974;229:14668.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 641  Darcis JM, Etienne M, Demonty J, et al. Candida albicans septicaemia in heroin addicts. Am J Dermatopathol 1986;8:5014.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 642  Dupont B, Drouhet E. Cutaneous, ocular and osteoarticular candidiasis in heroin addicts: new clinical and therapeutic aspects in 38 patients. J Infect Dis 1985;152:5779.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Mucormycosis

                      • 643  Bigby TD, Serota ML, Tierney LM, et al. Clinical spectrum of pulmonary mucormycosis. Chest 1986;89:4359.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 644  Carbone KM, Pennington LR, Gimenez LF, et al. Mucormycosis in renal transplant patients: report of two cases and review of the literature. Q J Med 1985;57:82531.Pubmed link
                      • 645  Gartenberg G, Bottone EJ, Keutsch GT, et al. Hospital acquired mucormycosis (Rhizopus rhizopodiformis) of skin and subcutaneous tissue: epidemiology, mycology and treatment. N Engl J Med 1978;299:111518.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 646  Mitchell SJ, Gray J, Morgan MEI, et al. Nosocomial infection with Rhizopus microsporus in preterm infants associated with wooden tongue depressors. Lancet 1996;348:4413.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Unusual causes of skin lesions among opportunistic systemic mycoses

                      • 647  Carlisle JR. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in a leukaemic child. Arch Dermatol 1978;114:7880.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 648  Allo MA, Miller J, Townsend T, et al. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis associated with Hickman intravenous catheters. N Engl J Med 1987;317:11058.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 649  Nahass GT, Rosenberg SP, Leonardi CL, et al. Disseminated infection with Trichosporon beigelii. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:10203.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 650  Rabodonirana M, Piens MA, Monier MF, et al. Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients: case report and literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994;13:15261.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Cutaneous infection caused by Pneumocystis jiroveci

                      • 651  Raviglione MC. Extrapulmonary pneumocystosis: the first 50 cases. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:112738.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Infections caused by Pythium insidiosum

                      • 652  De Cock AWAM, Mendoza L, Padhye AA, et al. Pythium insidiosum sp. nov., the aetiologic agent of pythiosis. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25:3449.Pubmed link
                      • 653  Sathapatayavongs B, Leelachaikul P, Prachaktam R, et al. Human pythiosis associated with thalassaemia haemoglobinopathy syndrome. J Infect Dis 1989;159:27480.Cross Ref linkPubmed link

                      Protothecosis

                      • 654  Davies RR, Wilkinson JL. Human protothecosis: supplementary studies. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1967;61:11215.Pubmed link
                      • 655  Mayhall CG, Miller CW, Eisen AZ, et al. Cutaneous protothecosis. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:174952.Cross Ref linkPubmed link
                      • 656  Sudman MS. Protothecosis: a critical review. Am J Clin Pathol 1974;61:1019.Pubmed link
                      • 657  Venezio FR, Lavoo E, Williams JE, et al. Progressive cutaneous protothecosis. Am J Clin Pathol 1982;77:4858.Pubmed link
                      • 658  Pegram PS, Kerns FT, Wasilauskas BL, et al. Successful ketoconazole treatment of protothecosis with ketoconazole associated hepatotoxicity. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:18026.Cross Ref linkPubmed link