Skin pigmentation and the melanocyte

The colour of the skin

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The melanocyte

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• 9  Fitzpatrick TB, Breathnach AS. Das epidermale melamim‐einheit System. Dermatol Wochenschr 1963;147:481–9. Pubmed link
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Distribution of melanocytes

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Melanoblast migration and differentiation

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• 19  Sagebiel RW, Odland GF. In: Riley V, ed. Ultrastructural identification of melanocytes in early human embryos. Pigmentation: its Genesis and Biologic Control. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1972:43.
• 20  Mishima Y, Widlan S. Embryonic development of melanocytes in human hair and epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 1966;46:263–77. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 21  Wilson YM, Richards KL, Ford‐Perriss ML, et al. Neural crest cell lineage segregation in the mouse neural tube. Development 2004;131:6153–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 23  Baxter LL, Pavan WJ. Pmel17 expression is Mitf‐dependent and reveals cranial melanoblasts migration during murine development. Gene Expr Patterns 2003;3:703–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 24  Bentley NJ, Eisen T, Goding CR. Melanocyte‐specific expression of the human tyrosinase promoter: activation by the microphthalmia gene product and role of the initiator. Mol Cell Biol 1994;14:7996–8006. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 25  Baxter LL, Hou L, Loftus SK, Pavan WJ. Spotlight on spotted mice: a review of white spotting mutants and associated human pigmentation disorders. Pigment Cell Res 2004;17:215–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 26  Potterf SB, Furumura M, Dunn KJ, et al. Transcription factor hierarchy in Waardenburg syndrome: regulation of MITF expression by SOX10 and PAX3. Hum Genet 2000;107:1–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 27  Lang D, Lu MM, Huang L, et al. Pax3 functions at a nodal point in melanocytes stem cell differentiation. Nature 2005;433:884–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Melanosome transport

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• 29  Busca R, Bertolotto C, Abbe P, et al. Inhibition of Rho is required for cAMP‐induced melanoma cell differentiation. Mol Biol Cell 1998;9:1367–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 30  Scott G, Leopardi S. The cAMP signalling pathway has opposing effects on Rac and Rho in B16F10 cells: implications for dendrite formation in melanocytic cells. Pigment Cell Res 2003;16:139–48. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 31  Scott G. Rac and Rho: the story behind melanocyte dendrite formation. Pigment Cell Res 2002;15:322–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 32  Scott G, Leopardi S, Printup S, Madden BC. Filopedia are conduits for melanosome transfer to keratinocytes. J Cell Sci 2002;115:1441–51. Pubmed link
• 33  Wu X, Bowers B, Wei Q, et al. Myosin V associates with melanosomes in mouse melanocytes: evidence that myosin V is an organelle motor. J Cell Sci 1997;110:847–59. Pubmed link
• 34  Byers HR, Yaar M, Eller MS, et al. Role of cytoplasmic dynein in melanosome transport in human melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2000;114:990–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 35  Hara M, Yaar M, Byers HR, et al. Kinesin participates in melanosomal movement along melanocyte dendrites. J Invest Dermatol 2000;114:438–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 36  Gross SP, Tuma MC, Deacon SW, et al. Interactions and regulation of molecular motors in Xenopus melanophores. J Cell Biol 2002;156:855–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 37  Strom M, Hume AN, Tarafder AK, et al. A family of Rab27‐binding proteins. Melanophilin links Rab27a and myosin Va function in melanosome transport. J Biol Chem 2002;277:25423–30. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 39  Fukuda M. Rab27 effectors, pleiotropic regulators in secretory pathways. Traffic 2013;14:949–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Melanosome transfer to keratinocytes

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• 42  Jahn R, Sudhof TC. Membrane fusion and exocytosis. Annu Rev Biochem 1999;68:863–911. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 43  Scott G, Zhao Q. Rab3a and SNARE proteins: potential regulators of melanosome movement. J Invest Dermatol 2001;116:296–304. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 44  Cerdan D, Grillon C, Monsigny M, Redziniak G, Keida C. Human keratinocyte membrane lectins: characterization and modulation of their expression by cytokines. Biol Cell 1991;73:35–42. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 45  Condaminet B, Redziniak G, Monsigny M, Keida C. Ultraviolet rays induced expression of lectins on the surface of a squamous carcinoma keratinocyte cell line. Exp Cell Res 1997;232:216–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 46  Minwalla I, Zhao Y, Cornelius J, et al. Inhibition of melanosome transfer from melanocytes to keratinocytes by lectins and neoglycoproteins in an in vitro model system. Pigment Cell Res 2001;14:185–94. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 47  Tarafder AK, Bolasco G, Correia MS, et al. Rab11a mediates melanin transfer between donor melanocytes and acceptor keratinocytes via coupled exo/endocytosis. J Invest Dermatol 2014;134:1056–66. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 48  Ando H, Niki Y, Ito M, et al. Melanosomes are transferred from melanocytes to keratinocytes through the process of packaging, release, uptake and dipersion. J Invest Dermatol 2012;132:1222–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 49  Van Den Bossche K, Naeyaert JM, Lambert J. The quest for the mechanism of melanin transfer. Traffic 2006;7:769–78. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Melanocyte culture

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• 51  Halaban R, Ghosh S, Baird A. bFGF is the putative natural growth factor for human melanocytes. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 1987;23:47–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 52  Halaban R. Growth factors and tyrosine protein kinases in normal and malignant melanocytes. Cancer Metast Rev 1991;10:129–40. Cross Ref link
• 53  Böhm M, Moellmann GE, Cheng M, et al. Identification of p90RSK as the probable CREB‐Ser 133 kinase in human melanocytes. Cell Growth Differ 1995;6:291–302. Pubmed link
• 54  Hirobe T. Role of leukaemia inhibitory factor in the regulation of differentiation of neonatal mouse epidermal melanocytes in culture. J Cell Physiol 2002;192:315–26. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 55  Halaban R, Tyrrell L, Longley J, Yarden Y, Rubin J. Pigmentation and proliferation in human melanocytes and the effects of melanocyte‐stimulating hormone and ultraviolet B light. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993;680:290–301. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 56  Odecamp K, Kos L, Arnheiter H, Pavan WJ. Endothelin signaling in the development of neural crest‐derived melanocytes. Biochem Cell Biol 1998;76:1093–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 57  Hara M, Yaar M, Gilchrest BA. Endothelin‐1 of keratinocytes origin is a mediator of melanocytes dendricity. J Invest Dermatol 1995;105:744–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Biochemistry of melanogenesis

• 58  Hearing VJ. Determination of melanin synthetic pathways. J Invest Dermatol 2011;131:E8–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 59  Rees JL. The genetics of human pigmentation disorders. J Invest Dermatol 2011;131:E12–13. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 60  Hearing VJ. Invited editorial: unraveling the melanocytes. Am J Hum Genet 1993;52:1–7. Pubmed link
• 61  Prota G. Progress in the chemistry of melanins and related metabolites. Med Res Rev 1988;8:525–56. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 62  Albrecht L, Patil D, Wolfram LJ. Photochemical properties of pheo‐ and eu‐melanins [Abstract]. J Invest Dermatol 1986;87:396.
• 63  Chedekel MR, Bahn P, Patil D, et al. Melanin free acid: a chemical standard for eumelanin research [Abstract]. J Invest Dermatol 1986;87:397.
• 64  Prota G. Recent advances in the chemistry of melanogenesis in mammals. J Invest Dermatol 1980;75:122–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Regulation of human pigmentation by UV light and by endocrine, paracrine and autocrine factors

• 65  Friedmann PS, Gilchrest BA. Ultraviolet radiation directly induces pigment production by cultured human melanocytes. J Cell Physiol 1987;133:88–94. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 66  Abdel‐Malek Z, Swope V, Smalara D, et al. Analysis of the UV‐induced melanogenesis and growth arrest in human melanocytes. Pigment Cell Res 1994;7:326–32. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 67  Barker D, Dixon K, Medrano EE, et al. Comparison of the responses of human melanocytes with different melanin contents to ultraviolet B irradiation. Cancer Res 1995;55:4041–6. Pubmed link
• 68  Hamilton JB, Hubert G. Photographic nature of tanning of human skin as shown by studies of male hormone therapy. Science 1938;88:481. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 69  Hamilton JB. Significance of sex hormones in tanning of the skin in women. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1941;40:502–3. Cross Ref link
• 70  Kippenberger S, Loitsch S, Solano F, Bernd A, Kaufmann R. Quantification of tyrosinase, TRP‐1 and TRP‐2 transcripts in human melanocytes by reverse transcriptase‐competitive multiplex PCR‐regulation by steroid hormones. J Invest Dermatol 1998;110:364–7. Pubmed link
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• 72  Nieman LK, Chanco Turner ML. Addison's disease. Clin Dermatol 2006;24:276–80. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 73  Bertagna X, Guignat L, Groussin L, Bertherat J. Cushing's disease. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;23:607–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 74  Suzuki I, Cone R, Im S, et al. Binding capacity and activation of the MC1 receptors by melanotropic hormones correlate directly with their mitogenic and melanogenic effects on human melanocytes. Endocrinology 1996;137:1627–33. Pubmed link
• 75  Friedmann PS, Wren F, Buffey J, MacNeil S. a‐MSH causes a small rise in cAMP but has no effect on basal or ultraviolet‐stimulated melanogenesis in human melanocytes. Br J Dermatol 1990;123:145–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 76  Swope VB, Abdel‐Malek ZA, Kassem L, Nordlund JJ. Interleukins 1‐a and 6 and tumor necrosis factor‐a are paracrine inhibitors of human melanocyte proliferation and melanogenesis. J Invest Dermatol 1991;96:180–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 77  Swope VB, Sauder DN, McKenzie RC, et al. Synthesis of interleukin‐1a and b by normal human melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1994;102:749–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 78  Tomita Y, Iwamoto M, Masuda T, Tagami H. Stimulatory effect of prostaglandin E2 on the configuration of normal human melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1987;89:299–301. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 79  Scott G, Leopardi S, Printup S, et al. Proteinase‐activated receptor‐2 stimulates prostaglandin production in keratinocytes: analysis of prostaglandin receptors on human melanocytes and effects of PGE2 and PGF2a on melanocyte dendricity. J Invest Dermatol 2004;122:1214–24. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 80  Yamaguchi Y, Hearing VJ. Physiological factors that regulate skin pigmentation. Biofactors 2009;35:193–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 81  Pittelkow MR, Shipley GD. Serum‐free culture of normal human melanocytes: growth kinetics and growth factor requirements. J Cell Physiol 1989;140:565–76. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 82  Gordon PR, Mansur CP, Gilchrest BA. Regulation of human melanocyte growth, dendricity, and melanization by keratinocyte derived factors. J Invest Dermatol 1989;92:565–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 83  Morelli JG, Yohn JJ, Lyons MM, et al. Leukotrienes C4 and D4 as potent mitogens for cultured human neonatal melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1989;93:719–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 84  Rubanyi GM, Polokoff MA. Endothelins: molecular biology, biochemistry, pharmacology, physiology and pathophysiology. Pharmacol Rev 1994;46:325–415. Pubmed link
• 85  Yada Y, Higuchi K, Imokawa G. Effects of endothelins on signal transduction and proliferation in human melanocytes. J Biol Chem 1991;166:18352–7.
• 86  Swope VB, Medrano EE, Smalara D, Abdel‐Malek Z. Long‐term proliferation of human melanocytes is supported by the physiologic mitogens a‐melanotropin, endothelin‐1, and basic fibroblast growth factor. Exp Cell Res 1995;217:453–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 87  Tada A, Suzuki I, Im S, et al. Endothelin‐1 is a paracrine growth factor that modulates melanogenesis of human melanocytes and participates in their responses to ultraviolet radiation. Cell Growth Differ 1998;9:575–84. Pubmed link
• 88  Kadekaro AL, Kanto H, Kavanagh R, et al. a‐Melanocortin and endothelin‐1 promote the survival of human melanocytes by activating anti‐apoptotic pathways and enhancing the repair of DNA photoproduct. Cancer Res 2005;65:4292–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Biological significance of melanin

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• 93  Wassermann HP. Melanokinetics and the biological significance of melanin. Br J Dermatol 1970;82:530–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 94  Wassermann HP. Ethnic Pigmentation. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1974.

Classification of disorders of melanin pigmentation

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Constitutive pigmentation, human pigmentation and the response to sun exposure

• 96  Costin GE, Hearing VJ. Human skin pigmentation: melanocytes modulate skin color in response to stress. FASEB J 2007;21:976–94. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 97  Olson RL, Gaylon J, Everett MA. Skin color, melanin and erythema. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:541–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 98  Hori Y, Toda K, Pathak MA, et al. A fine‐structure study of the human epidermal melanosome complex and its acid phosphatase activity. J Ultrastruct Res 1968;25:109–20. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 99  Kaidbey KH, Poh Agin P, Sayre RM, Kligman AM. Photoprotection by melanin: a comparison of black and Caucasian skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1979;1:249–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 100  Fitzpatrick TB. The validity and practicality of sun‐reaction skin types I through VI. Arch Dermatol 1988;124:869–71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Acquired hypermelanosis

Physiological hypermelanosis

• 101  Sheehan JM, Cragg N, Chadwick CA, et al. Repeated ultraviolet exposure affords the same protection against DNA photodamage and erythema in human skin types II and IV but is associated with faster DNA repair in skin type IV. J Invest Dermatol 2002;118:825–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 102  Whitmore SE, Morison WL, Potten CS, Chadwick C. Tanning salon exposure and molecular alterations. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:775–80. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 103  Bykov VJ, Marcusson JA, Hemminki K. Protective effects of tanning on cutaneous DNA damage in situ. Dermatology 2001;202:22–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 104  Boldeman C, Branstrom R, Dal H, et al. Tanning habits and sunburn in a Swedish population aged 13–50 years. Eur J Cancer 2001;37:2441–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 105  Pratt K, Borland R. Predictors of sun protection among adolescents at the beach. Aust Psychol 1994;29:135–9. Cross Ref link
• 106  Diffey B. Sunbeds, beauty and melanoma. Br J Dermatol 2007;157:215–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 107  Oliver H, Ferguson J, Moseley H. Quantitative risk assessment of sunbeds: impact of new high power lamps. Br J Dermatol 2007;157:350–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Melasma

• 108  Sanchez NP, Pathak MA, Sato S, et al. Melasma: a clinical, light microscopic, ultrastructural and immunofluorescence study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1981;4:698–710. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 110  Muallem MM, Rubeiz NG. Physiological and biological skin changes in pregnancy. Clin Dermatol 2006;24:80–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 111  Carruthers R. Chloasma and oral contraceptives. Med J Aust 1966;2:17–20. Pubmed link
• 112  Wong RC, Ellis CN. Physiologic skin changes in pregnancy. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984;10:929–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 113  Pérez M, Sánchez JL, Aguiló F. Endocrinologic profile of patients with idiopathic melasma. J Invest Dermatol 1981;81:543–5.
• 114  Smith AG, Shuster S, Thody AJ, Peberdy M. Chloasma, oral contraceptives, and plasma immunoreactive b‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone. J Invest Dermatol 1977;68:169–70. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 115  Kosmadaki M, Kontochristopoulos G. Disorders of cutaneous pigmentation. In: Parish LC, Brenner S, Ramos‐e‐Silva M, Parish JL, eds. Manual of Gender Dermatology. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2011:141–8.
• 116  Grimes PE, Yamada N, Bhawan J. Light microscopic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural alterations in patients with melasma. Am J Dermatopathol 2005;27:96–101. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 117  Achar A, Rathi SK. Melasma: a clinic‐epidemiological study of 312 cases. Indian J Dermatol 2011;56:380–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 118  Snell RS, Turner R. Skin pigmentation in relation to the menstrual cycle. J Invest Dermatol 1966;47:147–55. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 119  Pathak MA, Fitzpatrick TB, Kraus EW. Usefulness of retinoic acid in the treatment of melasma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986;15:894–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 120  Gupta AK, Gover MD, Nouri K, Taylor S. The treatment of melasma: a review of clinical trials. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;55:1048–65. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 121  Rendon M, Berneburg M, Arellano I, Picardo M. Treatment of melasma. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006;54(5 Suppl. 2):S272–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 122  Cestari T, Arrellano I, Hexsel D, et al. Melasma in Latin America: options for therapy and treatment algorithm. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2009;23:760–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 123  Rivas S, Pandya AG. Treatment of melasma with topical agents, peels and lasers: an evidence‐based review. Am J Clin Dermatol 2013;14:359–76. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 124  Picardo M, Carrera M. New and experimental treatments of cloasma and other hypermelanoses. Dermatol Clin 2007;25:353–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 125  Breathnach AS. Melanin hyperpigmentation of skin: melasma, topical treatment with azelaic acid and other therapies. Cutis 1996;57:36–45. Pubmed link
• 126  Amer M, Metwalli M. Topical liquiritin improves melasma. Int J Dermatol 2000;39:299–301. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 127  Khemes A, Kaiafa A, Queille‐Roussel C, et al. Evaluation of efficacy and safety of rucinol serum in patients with melasma: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 2007;156:997–1004. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 128  Deo DS, Dash KN, Sharma YK, Virmani NC, Oberai C. Kojic acid vis‐a‐vis its combinations with hydroquinone and betamethasone valerate in melasma: a randomized, single blind, comparative study of efficacy and safety. Indian J Dermatol 2013;58:281–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Photocontact facial melanosis

• 129  Serrano G, Pujol C, Cuadra J, Aliaga A. Riehl's melanosis: pigmented contact dermatitis caused by fragrances. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:1057–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 130  Nakayama H, Harada R, Toda M. Pigmented cosmetic dermatitis. Int J Dermatol 1976;15:673–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 131  Nagao S, Iijima S. Light and electron microscopic study of Riehl's melanosis. J Cutan Pathol 1974;1:165–75. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 132  Riehl G. Über eine eigenartige Melanose. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1917;30:780–1.
• 133  Pierini LE. Melanosis de Riehl. Arch Argent Dermatol 1952;2:315.
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• 135  Pérez‐Bernal A, Moñoz‐Pérez MA, Camacho F. Management of facial hyperpigmentation. Am J Clin Dermatol 2000;1:261–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 136  Li YH, Chen JZ, Wu Y, et al. A pilot study of intense pulsed light in the treatment of Riehl's melanosis. Dermatol Surg 2011;37:119–22. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Poikiloderma of Civatte

• 137  Civatte A. Poikilodermie reticule pigmentaire du visage et du col. Ann Dermatol Syphilol (Paris) 1923;6:605–20.
• 138  Pérez‐Bernal A, Moñoz‐Pérez MA, Camacho F. Management of facial hyperpigmentation. Am J Clin Dermatol 2000;1:261–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 139  Nofal A, Salah E. Acquired poikiloderma: proposed classification and diagnostic approach. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013;69:129–40. Cross Ref link
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• 141  Rusciani A, Motta A, Fino P, Menichini G. Treatment of poikiloderma of Civatte using intense pulsed light source: 7 years of experience. Dermatol Surg 2008;34:314–19. Pubmed link
• 142  Wheeland RG, Applebaum J. Flashlamp‐pumped pulsed dye laser therapy for poikiloderma of Civatte. J Dermatol Surg Oncol 1990;16:12–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Erythromelanosis follicularis of the face and neck

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• 146  Warren FM, Davis LS. Erythromelanosis follicularis faciei in women. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:863–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 147  Sardana K, Relhan V, Garg V, Khurana N. An observational analysis of erythromelanosis follicularis faciei et colli. Clin Exp Dermatol 2008;33:333–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 149  Silva RS, Fonseca JC, Obadia D. Case for diagnosis. Erythromelanosis follicularis faciei et colli. An Bras Dermatol 2010;85:923–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Peribuccal pigmentation of Brocq

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Ephelides

• 153  Brues AM. Linkage of body build with sex, eye colour and freckling. Am J Hum Genet 1950;2:215–39. Pubmed link
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• 155  Box NF, Wyeth JR, O'Gorman LE, et al. Characterization of melanocyte stimulating hormone receptor variant alleles in twins with red hair. Hum Mol Genet 1997;6:1891–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 156  Zhang XJ, He PP, Liang YH, et al. A gene for freckles maps to chromosome 4q32–q34. J Invest Dermatol 2004;122:286–90. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 157  Ito M. Genetical studies on skin diseases: ephelides, dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria and xeroderma pigmentosum. Tohoku J Exp Med 1950;3:69–72. Cross Ref link

Lentiginosis

• 158  Davis DG, Shaw MW. An unusual human mosaic for skin pigmentation. N Engl J Med 1964;270:1384–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 159  Pickering JG. Partial unilateral lentiginosis with associated developmental abnormalities. Guys Hosp Rep 1973;122:361–70. Pubmed link
• 160  Thompson GW, Diehl AK. Partial unilateral lentiginosis. Arch Dermatol 1980;116:356. Pubmed link
• 161  Trattner H, Metzker A. Partial unilateral lentiginosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;29:693–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 162  Matsudo H, Reed WB, Homme D, et al. Zosterform lentiginous nevus. Arch Dermatol 1973;107:902–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 163  Port M, Courniotes J, Podwal M. Zosteriform lentiginous naevus with ipsilateral rigid left cavus foot. Br J Dermatol 1978;98:693–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 164  Schaffer JV, Lazova R, Bolognia JL. Partial unilateral lentiginosis with ocular involvement. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:387–90. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 165  Toelle SP, Boltschauser E, Wirth MG, Itin P. Association of lentiginous mosaicism and congenital cataract in a girl. Eur J Dermatol 2006;16:360–2. Pubmed link
• 166  Khumalo NP, Huson S, Burge S. Development of lentigines within naevoid hypopigmentation. Br J Dermatol 2001;144:188–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black people

• 167  O'Neill JF, James WD. Inherited patterned lentiginosis in blacks. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:1231–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Eruptive lentiginosis

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PUVA lentigines

• 171  Miller RA. Psoralens and UV‐A‐induced stellate hyperpigmented freckling. Arch Dermatol 1982;118:619–20. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 172  Helland S, Bang G. Nevus spilus‐like hyperpigmentation in psoriatic lesions during PUVA therapy. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1980;60:81–3.
• 173  Rhodes AR, Stern RS, Melski JW. The PUVA lentigo: an analysis of predisposing factors. J Invest Dermatol 1983;81:459–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 174  Kadunce DP, Piepkorn MW, Zone JJ. Persistent melanocytic lesions associated with cosmetic tanning bed use: ‘sunbed lentigines’. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:1029–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 175  Naik RP, Parameswara YR. 8‐Methoxypsoralen‐induced nail pigmentation. Int J Dermatol 1982;21:275–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Addison disease

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• 177  Runcie CJ, Semple CG, Slater SD. Addison's disease without pigmentation. Scott Med J 1986;31:111–12. Pubmed link
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• 180  Deutsch S, Mescon H. Melanin pigmentation and its endocrine control. N Engl J Med 1957;257:222–6, 268–72. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 181  Van Geel N, Speeckaert M, Brochez L, et al. Clinical profile of generalized vitiligo patients with associated autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2014;28:741–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Acromegaly

• 182  Centurión SA, Schwartz RA. Cutaneous signs of acromegaly. Int J Dermatol 2002;41:631–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Cushing syndrome

• 184  McKenzie AD, McIntosh HW. Hyperpigmentation and pituitary tumor as sequelae of the surgical treatment of Cushing's syndrome. Am J Surg 1965;110:135–41. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 185  Sawin CT, Abe K, Orth DN. Hyperpigmentation due solely to increased plasma b‐melanotropin. Arch Intern Med 1970;125:708–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 186  Nelson DH, Meakin JW, Thorn GW. ACTH‐producing pituitary tumors following adrenalectomy for Cushing's syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1960;52:560–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 187  Abe K, Nicholson WE, Liddle GW, et al. Normal and abnormal regulation of b‐MSH in man. J Clin Invest 1969;48:1580–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

ACTH administration

• 188  Cass LJ, Alexander L, Frederik WS, et al. ACTH‐induced Addisonian‐like melanoderma in man. Curr Ther Res 1964;6:601–7. Pubmed link
• 189  Khan SA, Smith AF. Intermittent tetracosactrin‐depot therapy in dermatology. Br J Dermatol 1970;82:389–96. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Hyperthyroidism

• 190  Readett MD. Constitutional eczema and thyroid disease. Br J Dermatol 1964;76:126–39. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 191  Arakawa T. Hyperpigmentation of the skin with DOPA‐uria of a newborn. Tohoku J Exp Med 1963;80:329–37. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 192  Doshi DN, Blyumin ML, Kimball AB. Cutaneous manifestations of thyroid disease. Clin Dermatol 2008;26:283–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 193  Diven DG, Gwinup G, Newton RC. The thyroid. Dermatol Clin 1989;7:547–57. Pubmed link

Neoplastic diseases

• 194  Wright TS. Cutaneous manifestations of malignancy. Curr Opin Pediatr 2011;23:407–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 195  Liddle GW, Givens JR, Nicholson WE, et al. The ectopic ACTH syndrome. Cancer Res 1965;25:1057–61. Pubmed link
• 196  Sebaratnam DF, Venugopal SS, Frew JW, et al. Diffuse melanosis cutis: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013; 68:482–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 197  Konrad K, Wolff K. Pathogenesis of diffuse melanosis secondary to malignant melanoma. Br J Dermatol 1974;91:635–55. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 198  Adrian RM, Murphy GF, Sato S, et al. Diffuse melanosis secondary to metastatic malignant melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1981;5:308–18. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 199  Bell HK, Poston GJ, Vora J, Wilson NJ. Cutaneous manifestations of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Br J Dermatol 2005;152:71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 200  David M, Shanon A, Hazay B, Sandbank M. Diffuse, progressive, hyperpigmentation: an unusual skin manifestation of mycosis fungoides. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;16:257–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 201  Kikuchi A, Shimizu H, Nishikawa T. Mycosis fungoides with marked hyperpigmentation. Dermatology 1996;192:360–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Hyperpigmentation in rheumatic diseases

• 202  Langevitz P, Livneh A, Bank I, Pras M. Benefits and risks of minocycline in rheumatoid arthritis. Drug Saf 2000;22:405–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 203  Toussirot E, Wendling D. Methotrexate‐induced hyperpigmentation in a rheumatoid arthritis patient. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1999;17:751. Pubmed link

Systemic sclerosis and morphoea

• 204  Reveille JD, Fischbach M, McNearney T, et al. Systemic sclerosis in three US ethnic groups: a comparison of clinical, sociodemographic, serologic, and immunogenetic determinants. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2001;30:332–46. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 205  Tabata H, Hara N, Otsuka S, et al. Correlation between diffuse pigmentation and keratinocyte‐derived endothelin‐1 in systemic sclerosis. Int J Dermatol 2000;39:899–902. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 206  Yamamoto T, Sawada Y, Katayama I, Nishioka K. Local expression and systemic release of stem cell factor in systemic sclerosis with diffuse hyperpigmentation. Br J Dermatol 2001;144:199–200. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 207  Shimada Y, Hasegawa M, Takehara K, Sato S. Systemic sclerosis with elevated cell surface L‐selectin levels. Clin Exp Immunol 2001;124:474–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 208  Kreuter A. Localized scleroderma. Dermatol Ther 2012;25:135–47. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 209  Weinberg JM, Russo M, Hirsch RJ, Don PC. Morphoea of the breast in a young girl. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:497–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 210  Iranzo P, Lopez I, Palou J, et al. Morphoea in three siblings. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2001;15:46–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 211  Rompel R, Mischke AL, Langner C, Happle R. Linear atrophoderma of Moulin. Eur J Dermatol 2000;10:611–13. Pubmed link

Dermatomyositis and lupus erythematosus

• 212  Bottomley WW, Goodfield MD. A case of dermatomyositis presenting as localized hyperpigmentation of the hands and face. Br J Dermatol 1995;132:670–1. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 213  Castro MA, Kutzbach A. Acanthosis nigricans associated with long‐standing dermatomyositis. J Rheum 1996;23:1487–8. Pubmed link
• 214  Skowron F, Combemale P, Faisant M, et al. Functional melanonychia due to involvement of the nail matrix in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;47(2 Suppl.):S187–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Neurological disorders

• 215  Derbes VJ, Fleming G, Becker SW. Generalized cutaneous pigmentation of diencephalic origin. Arch Dermatol 1955;72:13–22. Cross Ref link
• 216  Leu ML, Strickland GT, Wang CC, et al. Skin pigmentation in Wilson's disease. JAMA 1970;211:1542–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 217  Meerloo JAM. Human camouflage and identification with the environment. Psychosom Med 1957;19:89–98. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Multiple organ failure

• 218  Czop M, Herr DL. Green skin discoloration associated with multiple organ failure. Crit Care Med 2002;30:598–61. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Renal failure

• 219  Gilkes JJH, Eady RAJ, Rees LH, et al. Plasma immunoreactive melanotrophic hormones in patients on maintenance haemodialysis. BMJ 1975;1:656–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 220  Pico MR, Lugo‐Somolinos A, Sanchez JL, Burgos‐Calderon R. Cutaneous alterations in patients with chronic renal failure. Int J Dermatol 1992;31:860–3. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 221  Smith AG, Shuster S, Comaish JS, et al. Plasma immunoreactive b‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone and skin pigmentation in chronic renal failure. BMJ 1975;1:658. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 222  Hmida MB, Turki H, Hachicha J, et al. Hypopigmentation in haemodialysis. Acquired hair and skin fairness in a uraemic patient undergoing maintenance haemodialysis: case report and review of the literature. Dermatology 1996;192:148–52. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Primary biliary cirrhosis

• 223  Mills PR, Skerrow CJ, MacKie RM. Melanin pigmentation of the skin in primary biliary cirrhosis. J Cutan Pathol 1981;8:404–10. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 224  Kaplan MM, Gerschwin ME. Primary biliary cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1261–73. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Haemochromatosis

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• 231  Finch SC, Finch CA. Idiopathic hemochromatosis, an iron storage disease. Medicine (Baltimore) 1955;34:381–430. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 232  Chevrant‐Breton J, Simon M, Bourel M, Ferrand B. Cutaneous manifestations of idiopathic hemochromatosis. Study of 100 cases. Arch Dermatol 1977;113:161–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 233  Adams PC, Deugnier Y, Moirand R, Rissot P. The relationship between iron overload, clinical symptoms and age in 410 patients with genetic hemochromatosis. Hepatology 1997;25:162–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 234  Köstler E, Porst H, Wollina U. Cutaneous manifestations of metabolic diseases: uncommon presentations. Clin Dermatol 2005;23:457–64. Pubmed link
• 235  Barton JC, McDonnell SM, Adams PC, et al. Management of hemochromatosis. Hemochromatosis Management Working Group. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:932–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Cutaneous amyloidosis

• 236  Black MM, Wilson Jones E. Macular amyloidosis. Br J Dermatol 1971;84:199–209. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 237  Brownstein MH, Hashimoto K. Macular amyloidosis. Arch Dermatol 1972;106:50–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 238  Hori Y, Koboni T. Macular amyloidosis: clinical and pathological studies. In: Fitzpatrick TB, ed. Biology and Diseases of Dermal Pigmentation. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1981:299–309.

Nutritional deficiencies

• 239  Manson‐Bahr P, Willoughby H. Studies on sprue with special reference to treatment based upon an analysis of 200 cases. Q J Med 1930;92:411–42. Cross Ref link
• 240  Dutly F, Altwegg M. Whipple's disease and ‘trephoryma whippelii’. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001;14:561–83. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 241  Panicker JN, Vijayaraghavan L, Madhusudanan S. Whipple's disease. J Assoc Physicians India 2001;49:853–5. Pubmed link
• 242  Diamantino F, Diamantino C, Mascarenhas A, Lopes MJ. Reversible generalized cutaneous hyperpigmentation: presenting manifestation of pernicious anemia. Int J Dermatol 2012;51:845–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 243  Stratigos JD, Katsambas A. Pellagra: a still existing disease. Br J Dermatol 1977;96:99–106. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 244  Goldberger J, Tanner WF. Amino acid deficiency is probably the primary etiologic factor in pellagra. Public Health Rep 1922;37:462–86. Cross Ref link
• 245  Elvehjem CA, Madden RJ, Strong FM, Wooley DW. Isolation and identification of anti‐black tongue factor. J Biol Chem 1938;123:137–49.
• 246  Grosshans E, Stoebner P, Basset A. La leucomélanodermie des vagabonds. Ann Dermatol Syphiligr 1972;99:141–59.
• 247  Thiers H, Colomb D, Durand B. Deux cas de mélanodermie des vagabonds. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syphiligr 1965;72:82–4. Pubmed link
• 248  Baker SJ, Ignatius M, Johnson S, Vaish SK. Hyperpigmentation of skin: a sign of vitamin B12 deficiency. BMJ 1963;i:1713–15. Cross Ref link
• 249  Gilliam JN, Cox AJ. Epidermal changes in vitamin B12 deficiency. Arch Dermatol 1973;107:231–61. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 250  Mori K, Ando I, Kukita A. Generalized hyperpigmentation of the skin due to vitamin B12 deficiency. J Dermatol 2001;28:282–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 251  Ridley CM. Pigmentation of fingertips and nails in vitamin B12 deficiency. Br J Dermatol 1977;97:105–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 252  Mori K, Ando I, Kukita A. Generalized hyperpigmentation of the skin due to vitamin B12 deficiency. J Dermatol 2001;28:282–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 253  Marks VJ, Briggaman RA, Wheeler CE Jr. Hyperpigmentation in megaloblastic anaemia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:914–17. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 254  Baumslag N, Metz J. Pigmentation in megaloblastic anaemia associated with pregnancy and lactation. BMJ 1969;ii:737–9. Cross Ref link
• 255  Downham TF, Rehbein HM, Taylor KE. Hyperpigmentation and folate deficiency. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:562. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 256  Karthikeyan K, Thappa DM. Pellagra and skin. Int J Dermatol 2002;41:476–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 257  Wan P, Moat S, Anstey A. Pellagra: a review with emphasis on photosensitivity. Br J Dermatol 2011;164:1188–200. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

POEMS syndrome

• 258  Miest RY, Comfere NI, Dispenzieri A, et al. Cutaneous manifestations in patients with POEMS syndrome. Int J Dermatol 2013;52:1349–56. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Hypermelanosis of drug origin

Drug‐induced hyperpigmentation

• 259  Dereure O. Drug‐induced skin pigmentation. Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. Am J Clin Dermatol 2001;2:253–62. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 260  Lerner EA, Sober AJ. Chemical and pharmacologic agents that cause hyperpigmentation or hypopigmentation of the skin. Dermatol Clin 1988;6:327–37. Pubmed link
• 261  Ferguson J, Frain‐Bell W. Pigmentary disorders and systemic drug therapy. Clin Dermatol 1989;7:44–54. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Amiodarone

• 262  Ferguson J, Addo HA, Jones S, et al. A study of cutaneous photosensitivity induced by amiodarone. Br J Dermatol 1985;113:537–49. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 263  Zachary CB, Slater DN, Holt DW, et al. The pathogenesis of amiodarone‐induced pigmentation and photosensitivity. Br J Dermatol 1984;110:451–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 264  Chalmers RJ, Muston HL, Srinivas V, Bennett DH. High incidence of amiodarone‐induced photosensitivity in north‐west England. BMJ 1982;285:341. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 265  Sivaram CA, Beckman KJ. Images in clinical medicine. Amiodarone‐induced skin discoloration. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1813. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 266  Scholz S, Rompel R. Amiodarone‐induced pigmentation. Z Hautkr 1997;72:901–4.
• 267  Stähli BE, Schwab S. Amiodarone‐induced skin hyperpigmentation. QJM 2011;104:723–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Antimalarial drugs

• 268  Sams WM, Epstein WM. The affinity of melanin for chloroquine. J Invest Dermatol 1965;45:482–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 269  Tuffanelli D, Abraham RK, Dubois E. Pigmentation from antimalarial therapy. Arch Dermatol 1963;88:419–26. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 270  Leigh IM, Kennedy CT, Ramsey JD, Henderson WJ. Mepacrine pigmentation in systemic lupus erythematosus. New data from an ultrastructural, biochemical and analytical electron microscope investigation. Br J Dermatol 1979;101:147–53. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 271  Mahler R, Sissons W, Watters K. Pigmentation induced by quinidine therapy. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:1062–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 272  Marriott P, Borrie PF. Pigmentary changes following chloroquine. Proc R Soc Med 1975;68:535–6. Pubmed link
• 273  Shee JC, Bernard PJ. Pigmentation from amodiaquine simulating cyanosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1963;57:379–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Clofazimine

• 274  Pettit JHS. B 663 (Lampren) in mycobacterial infections. Br J Dermatol 1969;81:794–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 275  Sakurai I, Skinsnes OK. Histochemistry of B 663 pigmentation: ceroid‐like pigmentation in macrophages. Int J Lepr 1977;45:343–54.
• 276  Job CK, Yoder L, Jacobson RR, Hastings RC. Skin pigmentation from clofazimine therapy in leprosy patients: a reappraisal. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:236–41. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 277  Kossard S, Doherty E, McColl I, Ryman W. Autofluorescence of clofazimine in discoid lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;17:867–71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Cytotoxic drugs

• 278  Bronner AK, Hood AF. Cutaneous complications of chemotherapeutic agents. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;9:645–63. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 279  Feingold ML, Koss LG. Effects of long‐term administration of busulfan. Arch Intern Med 1969;124:66–71. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 280  Kyle RA, Schwartz RS, Oliver HL, et al. A syndrome resembling adrenal cortical insufficiency associated with long term busulfan (myleran) therapy. Blood 1961;18:497–510. Pubmed link
• 281  Adam BA, Ismail R, Sivanesan S. Busulfan hyperpigmentation. J Dermatol 1980;7:405–11. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 282  Kerker BJ, Hood AF. Chemotherapy‐induced cutaneous reactions. Semin Dermatol 1989;8:173–81. Pubmed link
• 283  Vassallo C, Passamonti F, Merante S, et al. Muco‐cutaneous changes during long‐term therapy with hydroxyurea in chronic myeloid leukaemia. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001;26:141–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Hydantoin

• 284  Gottwald W, Aksoy F. Mesantoin‐Begleiteffekte mit Addisonpigmentierung und cerebrale Anfalls‐Rhythmik. Hautarzt 1965;16:445–9. Pubmed link
• 285  Kuske H, Krebs A. Hyperpigmentierungen vom Typus des Chloasmas nach Behandlung mit Hydantoin‐Präparaten. Dermatologica 1964;129:121–39. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Psychotropic drugs

• 286  Hays GB, Lyle CB, Wheeler CE. Slate‐gray color in patients receiving chlorpromazine. Arch Dermatol 1964;90:471–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 287  Satanove A. Pigmentation due to phenothiazines in high and prolonged dosage. JAMA 1965;191:263–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 288  Hashimoto K, Wiener W, Albert J, et al. An electron microscopic study of chlorpromazine pigmentation. J Invest Dermatol 1966;47:296–306. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 289  Blois MS. On chlorpromazine binding in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 1965;45:475–81. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 290  Benning TL, McCormack KM, Ingram P, et al. Microprobe analysis of chlorpromazine pigmentation. Arch Dermatol 1988;124:1541–4. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 291  Smith AG, Goolamali SIK, Thody AJ, et al. Phenothiazine therapy and plasma immunoreactive b‐MSH in schizophrenia and pruritic dermatoses. Br J Dermatol 1977;96:537–9. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 292  Buckley C, Thomas V, Lewin J, et al. Stelazine‐induced pigmentation. Clin Exp Dermatol 1994;19:149–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 293  Hashimoto K, Joselow SA, Tye MJ. Imipramine hyperpigmentation: a slate‐gray discoloration caused by long‐term imipramine administration. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:357–61. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 294  Hägermark Ö, Wennersten G, Almeyda J. Cutaneous side effects of phenothiazines. Br J Dermatol 1971;84:605–7.
• 295  Greiner AC, Berry K. Skin pigmentation and corneal and lens opacities with prolonged chlorpromazine therapy. Can Med Assoc J 1964;90:663–5. Pubmed link

Tetracyclines

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• 297  Eisen D, Hakim MD. Minocycline‐induced pigmentation. Incidence, prevention and management. Drug Saf 1998;18:431–40. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 298  Filitis DC, Graber EM. Minocycline‐induced hyperpigmentation involving the oral mucosa after short‐term minocycline use. Cutis 2013;92:46–8. Pubmed link
• 299  Layton AM, Cunliffe WJ. Minocycline induced pigmentation in the treatment of acne: a review and personal observations. J Dermatol Treat 1989;1:9–12. Cross Ref link
• 300  Basler RSW. Minocycline‐related hyperpigmentation. Arch Dermatol 1985;121:606–8. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 301  Simons JJ, Morales A. Minocycline and generalized cutaneous pigmentation. J Am Acad Dermatol 1980;3:244–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 302  Argenyi ZB, Finelli L, Bergfeld WF, et al. Minocycline‐related cutaneous hyperpigmentation as demonstrated by light microscopy, electron microscopy and X‐ray energy spectroscopy. J Cutan Pathol 1987;14:176–80. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 303  Gordon G, Sparano BM, Iatropoulos MJ. Hyperpigmentation of the skin associated with minocycline therapy. Arch Dermatol 1985;121:618–23. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 304  Le Cleach L, Chosidow O, Peytavin G, et al. Blue–black pigmentation of the legs associated with pefloxacin therapy. Arch Dermatol 1995;131:856–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 305  Moller H, Rausing A. Methacycline pigmentation: a five‐year follow‐up. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1980;60:495–501.

Fixed drug eruption

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• 307  Gelfand M. ‘Melanotic’ lesions in the Africans. Cent Afr J Med 1964;10:443–7. Pubmed link
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Pigmentation resulting from acute photodynamic and phototoxic reactions

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• 320  Harber LC, Harris H, Leider M, et al. Berloque dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1964;90:572–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Post‐inflammatory hypermelanosis

• 323  Masu S, Seiji M. Pigmentary incontinence in fixed drug eruptions. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:525–32. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 324  Touraine R, Revuz J, Dreyfus B, et al. Graft‐versus‐host reaction and lichen planus. Br J Dermatol 1975;92:589. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 326  Papa CM, Kligman AM. The behaviour of melanocytes in inflammation. J Invest Dermatol 1965;45:465–74. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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Ashy dermatosis and erythema dyschromicum perstans

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Treatment of hypermelanosis

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• 345  Zoccali G, Piccolo D, Allegra P, Giuliani M. Melasma treated with intense pulsed light. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2010;34:486–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Vitiligo

• 346  Bologna J, Pawelek JM. Biology of hypopigmentation. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:217–55. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 369  Schallreuter KU, Wood JM, Berger J. Low catalase levels in epidermis of patients with vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol 1991;97:1081–5. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 374  Mohr J. Vitiligo in a pair of monovular twins. Acta Genet 1951;2:252–5. Pubmed link
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• 378  van Geel N, Mollet I, Brochez L, et al. New insights in segmental vitiligo: case report and review of theories. Br J Dermatol 2012;166:240–6. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 379  Ezzedine K, Mahé A, van Geel N, et al. Hypochromic vitiligo: delineation of a new entity. Br J Dermatol 2015 Mar;172(3):716–21. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 383  Taieb A, Alomar A, Böhm M, et al. Guidelines for the management of vitiligo: the European Dermatology Forum consensus. Br J Dermatol 2013;168:5–19. Cross Ref link
• 384  Ortel B, Tanew A, Hönigsmann H. Treatment of vitiligo with khellin and ultraviolet A. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;18:693–701. Cross Ref link
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• 387  Gawkrodger DJ, Ormerod AD, Shaw L, et al. Guideline for the diagnosis and management of vitiligo. Br J Dermatol 2008;159:1051–76. Cross Ref link
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• 389  Mosher DB, Parrish JA, Fitzpatrick TB. Monobenzylether of hydroquinone. Br J Dermatol 1977;97:669–79. Cross Ref link

Halo naevus

• 390  Kopf AW, Morrill SD, Silberberg I. Broad spectrum of leukoderma acquisitum centrifugum. Arch Dermatol 1965;92:14–35. Cross Ref link
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• 392  Copeman PWM, Lewis MG, Phillips TM, Elliott PG. Immunological associations of the halo naevus with cutaneous malignant melanoma. Br J Dermatol 1973;88:127–37. Cross Ref link
• 393  Wayte DM, Helwig EB. Halo nevi. Cancer 1968;22:69–90. Cross Ref link
• 394  Gauthier Y, Surleve‐Bazeille JE, Gauthier O. Ultrastructure of halo nevi. J Cutan Pathol 1975;2:71–81. Cross Ref link
• 395  Swanson JL, Wayte DM, Helwig EB. Ultrastructure of halo nevi. J Invest Dermatol 1968;50:434–7. Cross Ref link
• 396  Stegmaier OC, Becker SW, Medenica M. Multiple halo nevi. Arch Dermatol 1965;99:180–9. Cross Ref link
• 397  Herd RM, Hunter JAA. Familial halo naevi. Clin Exp Dermatol 1998;23:68–9. Cross Ref link
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• 399  Brazzelli V, Larizza D, Martinetti M, et al. Halo nevus, rather than vitiligo, is a typical dermatologic finding of Turner's syndrome: clinical, genetic, and immunogenetic study in 72 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;51:354–8. Cross Ref link

Acquired syndromic hypomelanosis

Vogt‐Koyanagi–Harada syndrome

• 400  Vogt A. Frühseitiges Ergrauen der Zilen und Bemerkungen über den sogenannten plötzlichen Eintritt dieser Veränderung. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1906;44:228–42.
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• 402  Koyanagi Y. Dysakusis, alopecia and poliosis bei schwerer uveitis nicht traumatischen ursprunges. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1929;82:194–211.
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• 405  Tsuruta D, Hamada T, Teramae H, et al. Inflammatory vitiligo in Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;44:129–31. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 406  Nordlund JJ, Albert D, Forget B, Lerner AB. Halo nevi and the Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome. Arch Dermatol 1980;116:690–2. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 407  Rabsmen PE, Gass DM. Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome: clinical course, therapy and long‐term visual outcome. Arch Ophthalmol 1991;10:682–7. Cross Ref link

Alezzandrini syndrome

• 408  Casala AM, Alezzandrini AA. Vitiligo y poliosis unilateral con retinitis pigmentaria y hypoacusia. Arch Argent Dermatol 1959;9:449–56.
• 409  Cremona AC, Alezzandrini AA, Casala AM. Vitiligo, poliosis and unilateral macular degeneration. Arch Oftalmol B Aires 1961;36:102–6. Pubmed link
• 410  Alezzandrini AA. Manifestations unilaterales degenerescence tapetoretinienne, de vitiligo, de poliose, de cheveux blancs et d'hypoacousie. Ophthalmologica 1964;147:409–19. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 411  Hoffmann MD, Dudley C. Suspected Alezandrini's syndrome in a diabetic patient with unilateral retinal detachment and ipsilateral vitiligo and poliosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992;26:496–7. Cross Ref link Pubmed link

Post‐inflammatory hypomelanosis

• 412  Furlan FC, Sanches JA. Hypopigmented mycosis fungoides: a review of its clinical features and pathophysiology. An Bras Dermatol 2013;88:954–60. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
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• 418  Clayton R, Breathnach A, Martin B, Feiwel M. Hypopigmented sarcoidosis in the negro. Br J Dermatol 1977;96:119–25. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 419  Cornelius CE, Stein KM, Hanshaw WJ, Sprott DA. Hypopigmentation and sarcoidosis. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:249–51. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 420  Job CK, Nayar A, Narayanan JS. Electronmicroscopic study of hypopigmented lesions in leprosy. Br J Dermatol 1972;87:200–12. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 421  Ruiz‐Maldonado R, Orozco‐Covarrubias ML. Postinflammatory hypopigmentation and hyperpigmentation. Semin Cutan Med Surg 1997;16:36–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 422  Smith NP, Samman PD. Mycosis fungoides presenting with areas of cutaneous hypopigmentation. Clin Exp Dermatol 1978;3:213–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 423  Lambroza E, Cohen SR, Phelps R, et al. Hypopigmented variant of mycosis fungoides: demography, histopathology and treatment of seven cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:987–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 424  Smith NP, Samman PD. Mycosis fungoides presenting with areas of cutaneous hypopigmentation. Clin Exp Dermatol 1978;3:213–16. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 425  Lambroza E, Cohen SR, Phelps R, et al. Hypopigmented variant of mycosis fungoides: demography, histopathology and treatment of seven cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:987–93. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 426  Vachiramon V, Thadanipon K. Postinflammatory hypopigmentation. Clin Exp Dermatol 2011;36:708–14. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 427  Ruiz‐Maldonado R, Orozco‐Covarrubias ML. Postinflammatory hypopigmentation and hyperpigmentation. Semin Cutan Med Surg 1997;16:36–43. Cross Ref link Pubmed link
• 428  Ruiz‐Maldonado R. Hypomelanotic conditions of the newborn and infant. Dermatol Clin 2007;25:373–82. Cross Ref link Pubmed link